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FOR THE 

COTTON-BE 




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EDITOR 



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COP«lIGHT DEPOSm 



Ube IRural Uext=BooF? Series 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



K\)c Eural Ecxt^Boofe Series 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 

Carleton, The Small Grains. 

B. M. Duggar, Plant Physiology, with 

special reference to Plant Production. 
J. F. Duggar, Southern Field Crops. 
Gay, The Breeds op Live-Stock. 
Gay, The Principles and Practice of 

Judging Live-Stock. 
Goff, The Principles of Plant Culture, 

Revised. 
Harper, Animal Husbandry for Schools. 
Harris and Stewart, The Principles of 

Agronomy. 
Hitchcock, A Text-Book of Grasses. 
Jeffery, Text-Book of Land Drainage. 
Livingston, Field Crop Production. 
Lyon, Fippin and Buckman, Soils — Their 

Properties and Management. 
Mann, Beginnings in Agriculture. 
Montgomery, The Corn Crops. 
Piper, Forage Plants and Their Culture. 
Warren, Elements of Agriculture. 
Warren, Farm Management. 
Wheeler, Manures and Fertilizers. 
White, Principles of Floriculture. 
Widtsoe, Principles of Irrigation Prac- 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE 
COTTON-BELT 



BY 
JAMES OSCAR MORGAN, M. S. A., Ph. D. 

PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY IN THE 
AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE OF TEXAS 



l^tvo fork 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1917 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1917 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY 
Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1917. 



JAN II (917 



OCI,A453602 



k^ 



MY PARENTS 

JAMES WILSON MORGAN 

AND 

ORRIE OSGOOD MORGAN 

THIS BOOK 

IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED IN APPRECIATION 

OF THEIR HIGH CHRISTIAN IDEALS 



PREFACE 

Climatic conditions in the cotton-belt states are mark- 
edly different, in many respects, from those in any other 
large area of the United States. For this reason the prac- 
tices involved in the production of field crops in the cotton- 
belt present many modifications of those of other regions. 
In the preparation of this volmne the author has endeav- 
ored to present clearly and accm^ately the science and art 
of field-crop production in the south. As the art of crop 
production is based primarily on the sciences of botany 
(physiological and ecological) and chemistry, the aim has 



been to give to these subjects their proper application. 

Although this book will be of much service to farmers 
and general readers, it has been written primarily with 
the needs of the college student in view. Considerable 
attention has been given to the principles of plant struc- 
ture and nutrition, particularly with reference to cotton 
and corn, the two leading crops in the cotton-belt. The 
student who is unfamiliar with the crop and its life- 
processes is ill-prepared for a proper study of the tillage 
practices involved in the production of the crop. 

The author wishes to acknowledge here his indebtedness 
to S. A. McMillan for many helpful suggestions in pre- 
paring this volume, and to A. B. Conner, F. H. Blodgett, 



viii PREFACE 

F. B. Paddock, J. B. Bagley, and W. H. Thomas for reading 
the manuscript for certain chapters. Drawings for several 
of the illustrations have been made by G. A. Geist and 
W. J. Skeeler. Credit is given for each illustration, not 
original, in the list of illustrations. 

J. 0. Morgan. 

College Station, Texas, 
Nov. 1, 1916. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

Classification and Value of Field Crops 

Classification by use, 1 ; Classification for the study 
of cropping systems, 2; Important botanical groups, 3. 
Value of Field Crops: Rank of the cotton-belt states, 
4 ;. Importance of field crops in the cotton-belt, 5. 

CHAPTER II 

Description of the Cotton Plant .... 
The root-system, 6; Types of roots, 7; Functions of 
the root-system, 8; The stem, 9; The branches, 10; 
The leaves, 11; The vascula,r system, 12; Air cavities, 
13; The peduncles, 14; The flowers, 15; The bolls, 16; 
Number of bolls to the plant, 17; The seed, 18; The 
lint, 19; Length and strength of fiber, 20. 

CHAPTER III 

Physiology of the Cotton Plant .... 
The plant structure, 21 ; The living substance in the 
plant, 22. The Comjjosition of the Cotton Plant: Com- 
position, 23; The essential constituents, 24. Nutri- 
tion: The absorption of food, 25; The taking up of 
carbon, 26; The necessary energy, 27. The Giving 
off of Water: 28. Reproduction: The reproductive or- 
gans, 29; The pollen-grains and egg-cells, 30; Fer- 
tilization, 31; The embryo, 32. 

CHAPTER IV 

The Principal Species of Cotton .... 
Malvaceae or mallow family, 33; The genus Gos- 
sypium, 34; Number of species, 35; Classification of 
ix 



PAGE 

1-6 



8-20 



21-29 



30-37 



X CONTENTS 

PAGE 

species, 36; The extensively cultivated species, 37; 
American upland cotton, 38; Sea Island cotton, 39; 
Peruvian cotton, 40; Indian cotton, 41; Bengal cot- 
ton, 42. 

CHAPTER V 

Cotton Varieties ....... 38-52 

What is a variety, 43; Origin of varieties, 44; Sta- 
bility of varieties, 45; Influence of soil and climate, 
46; Classification of varieties, 47; Cluster type, 48; 
Semi-cluster type, 49; Rio Grande type, 50; Early 
varieties of the King type, 51; The Big-boll type, 52; 
The long-limbed type, 53; Intermediate varieties, 54; 
Long-staple upland varieties, 55; High ranking vari- 
eties, 56. 
X CHAPTER VI 

Cotton Breeding ....... 53-66 

Reasons for breeding cotton, 57; Need of improve- 
ment in cotton, 58; Start with the best variety, 59; 
Qualities sought for in breeding cotton, 60; Qualities 
associated with high yield, 61; Characters that deter- 
mine quality, 62; Well defined ideal necessary, 63; 
Methods of improving cotton, 64. The Improvement 
of Cotton by Selection: Selection of foundation stock, 
65; Ginning cotton from select plants, 66; Testing 
transmitting power of plants, 67; Selecting the best 
progenies, 68; Making the second generation selec- 
tions, 69; The multiplication plot, 70; Influence of en- 
vironment, 71. The Use of Hybridization in Cotton 
Breeding: Reasons for hybridizing cotton, 72; The na- 
ture of hybrids, 73; Fixation of cotton-hybrids, 74; 
Methods of crossing cotton, 75; Hybridization versus 
selection, 76; Acclimatization, 77. 

CHAPTER VII 

Cotton Soils and Climatic Adaptations . . 67-80 

Cotton Soils: Soil types, 78; Cotton soils of the 
Coastal Plain Province, 79; Cotton soils of the 



CONTENTS xi 



Piedmont Plateau, 80; Cotton soils of the Appalachian 
Province, 81; Cotton soils of the limestone valleys 
and uplands, 82; Cotton soils of the Loessial region, 
83; Cotton soils of the River Flood Plains Province, 
84; Cotton soils of the Great Plains Region, 85. 
Climatic Adaptations: Length of growing season, 86; 
Amount and distribution of the rainfall, 87; Tem- 
perature and sunshine, 88. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Fertilizers, Manures and Rotations for Cotton . 81-100 
Fertility removed by cotton, 89; Maintenance 
of fertility, 90. Commercial Fertilizers for Cotton: 
Nitrogen-supplying fertilizers, 91; Sodium nitrate 
versus cotton-seed meal, 92; Cotton-seed versus cotton- 
seed meal, 93; Need of cotton soils for nitrogen, 94; 
Phosphatic fertilizers, 95; Need of cotton soils for 
phosphoric acid, 96; Potassic fertilizers, 97; Need of 
cotton soils for potash, 98; Potash fertilizers check 
rust, 99; A fertilizer test for cotton, 100; Judging fer- 
tilizer needs by appearance of plants, 101; Home- 
mixing fertilizers, 102; Time of applying fertilizers, 
103; Methods of applying fertilizers, 104; Fertilizer 
formulas for cotton, 105. Farm Manures for Cotton: 
Stable manure for cotton, 106; Composts for cotton, 
107. Green-Manures and Rotations for Cotton: Need 
of organic matter, 108; Suitable crops for green- 
manure, 109; Green-manures and the supply of or- 
ganic matter, 110; Green-manure crops and the nitro- 
gen supply. 111; Will crop rotation maintain fertility, 
112; Rotations for cotton, 113. 

CHAPTER IX 

Tillage for Cotton 101-116 

Preparation of the Seed-hed: Drainage the first es- 
sential, 114; Disposal of stalks and litter, 115; Fall 
plowing for cotton, 116; Spring plowing for cotton, 



xii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

117; Depth of plowing, 118; Subsoiling, 119; Subse- 
quent tillage, 120; Ridging versus level preparation, 
121; Forming the ridges, 122. Planting: Time of 
planting, 123; Advantage of planting heavy seed, 
124; Quantity of seed, 125; Methods of planting, 126; 
Cultivation: Objects of interculture, 127; Broadcast 
tillage for cotton, 128; Tillage by separate rows, 129; 
The first cultivation, 130; Chopping, 131; The second 
cultivation, 132; Subsequent culture, 133; Frequency 
of tillage, 134; The value of late tillage, 135; Distance 
between rows, 136; Distance between plants in the 
row, 137. 

CHAPTER X 

Harvesting and Marketing Cotton .... 117-126 
Picking, 138; Cotton-picking machines, 139; Gin- 
ning, 140; Types of cotton gins, 141; Baling, 142; 
Care of baled cotton, 143; Compressing, 144. Selec- 
tion and Classification of Commercial Grades of Cotton: 
Important points in cotton valuing, 145; Grade, 146; 
Relative values of different grades, 147; Staple, 148. 

CHAPTER XI 

Some Important Insect Enemies of Cotton . . 127-140 
The Mexican Cotton Boll-weevil: Life history and 
habits, 149; Food of the weevil, 150; Rate of increase, 
151; Dissemination, 152; Hibernation, 153; Drain- 
age, 154; Means of control, 155; Destroy cotton 
stalks early in fall, 156; Destroy weevils in hibernat- 
ing places, 157; Make provision for an early crop, 
158; Proper spacing of plants, 159. The Cotton Boll- 
worm: Description, 160; Life history, 161; Food 
plants, 162; Damage, 163; Means of control, 164. 
The Cotton Leaf -worm: Life history and habits, 165; 
Damage, 166; Means of control, 167. Insects of 
Secondary Importance: The cotton leaf-louse, 168; 
The cotton red-spider, 169; The cowpea pod-weevil, 
170. 



CONTENTS 



Xlll 



CHAPTER XII 

Diseases of Cotton ...... 

Cotton Wilt: Occurrence, 171; Cause, 172; Symp- 
toms, 173; Remedies, 174. Cotton Root-rot: Occur- 
rence, 175; Cause, 176; Symptoms, 177; Remedies, 
178. Root-knot: Occurrence, 179; Cause, 180; Symp- 
toms, 181; Remedy, 182. Cotton Anihracnose: Oc- 
currence, 183; Cause, 184; Symptoms, 185; Remedies, 
186. Mosaic Disease: Occurrence, 187; Cause, 188; 
Symptoms, 189; Remedies, 190. 



PAGE 

141-149 



CHAPTER XIII 

Maize or Indian Corn ..... 

Description of the Corn Plant: The root-system, 191 
Structure of roots, 192; Adventitious roots, 193 
Stems, 194; Structure of the stem, 195; Tillers, 196 
Leaves, 197; The flower, 198; The pistillate flowers, 
199; The ear, 200; The kernels, 201. 



150-160 



CHAPTER XIV 

Physiology of the Corn Plant .... 161-172 
Composition of the Corn Plant: Composition, 202. 
Water Requirements: Leaf surface, 203; Figuring the 
leaf surface of a corn plant, 204; Conditions affecting 
water requirements, 205; Amount of water required, 
206. Growth: Growth, 207; The. factors of growth, 
208; The growth of roots, 209; Growth of stems, 210; 
Growth of leaves, 211. Reproduction: Fertilization, 
212; Double fertilization, 213; Development of the 
ear, 214. 

CHAPTER XV 

Origin, Classification and Varieties of Corn . 173-186 

Nativity, 215; Biological origin, 216. Classifica- 
tion of Maize: Zea Mays canina, 217; Zea Mays 
tunicata or pod corn, 218; Zea Mays everata, the 
pop-corns, 219; Zea Mays indurata, the flint corns. 



xiv CONTENTS 



220; Zea Mays indentata, the dent corns, 221; Zea 
Mays amylacea, the soft corns, 222; Zea Mays sac- 
charata, the sweet corns, 223; Zea Mays amylea- 
saccharata, 224; Zea Mays japonica, 225; Zea Mays 
hirta, 226; Varieties, 227; Discussion of varieties, 228. 



CHAPTER XVI 

The Breeding of Corn ...... 187-210 

The significance of type in corn breeding, 229; De- 
fects in southern varieties, 230; Barren plants, 231; 
Tendency to sucker, 232; Methods of improving corn, 
233. Selection: Start with the best variety, 234; Mass 
selection, 235; Value of mass selection, 236; Pedigree 
selection, 237; The initial choice of ears in the field, 
238; Selecting the breeding plot, 239; Second year, 
240; Cultivation, 241; Detassehng, 242; Harvesting, 
243 ; Third year, 244 ; Breeding for high and low ears, 
245; Breeding for composition, 246; Other effects of 
breeding for composition, 247; Objects of breeding 
for composition, 248. Hijbridizntion: Objects of hy- 
bridization, 249; Degrees of relationship among corn 
plants, 250; The transmission of characters — Men- 
del's law, 251; Dominant qualities in corn-hybrids, 
252; Effects of inbreeding, 253; Value of crossing 
varieties, 254; Method of producing cross-bred seed, 
255. 

CHAPTER XVn 

Soil and Climatic Adaptations of Corn . 211-216 

Soil Adaptations: Soils adapted to corn, 256; Soils 
not adapted to corn, 257; Modification of soils for 
corn, 258; Soil type and crop variety, 259. Climatic 
Adaptations: Factors of climate, 260; Influence of 
rainfall, 261; Influence of sunshine, 262; Influence of 
temperature, 263; Length of growing season, 264; In- 
fluence of climate upon Habit of growth, 265. 



CONTENTS 



XV 



CHAPTER XVIII 

Cropping Systems, Manures and Fertilizers for Corn 
Cropping Systems for Corn: Continuous corn cul- 
ture impoverishes soil, 266; The place of corn in a 
rotation, 267; Suggested rotations for the cotton- 
belt, 268. Manures and Fertilizers for Corn: Manures, 
269; Lime for corn, 270; Fertilizers for corn, 271; 
Plant-food removed by corn, 272; Soils and fer- 
tilizers, 273; Relative importance of fertilizing con- 
stituents, 274; When to apply fertilizers, 275; Method 
of applying fertilizers, 276; Fertilizer formulas for 
corn, 277; Some general principles, 278. 



PAGE 

217 229 



CHAPTER XIX 

Preparing the Seed-bed for Corn .... 
Plowing the Land: Destroying the stalks, 279; Time 
of plo^ving, 280; Depth of plowing, 281; Covering 
rubbish, 282; Subsoiling, 283. Preparation of Ploxved 
Land: Treatment of plowed land, 284; The disk- 
harrow, 285; The smoothing harrow, 286; Special 
harrows, 287; Sub-surface packers, 288; Ridging com 
land, 289; Wide beds for corn, 290. 



230-237 



CHAPTER XX 

Planting and Cultivating the Corn Crop 

Planting the Seed: Testing the seed, 291; Methods 
of planting corn, 292; Time 'of planting, 293; Depth 
of planting, 294; Importance of getting a stand, 295; 
Distance between rows and hills, 296. Cultivating 
the Crop: The objects of interculture, 297; Importance 
of thorough early cultivation, 298; Cultivation by 
separate rows, 299; Depth and frequency of cultiva- 
tion, 300; Value of late cultivation, 301; Kinds of 
cultivators, 302; The Mclver Williamson method of 
corn production, 303. 



238-250 



XVI 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XXI 

Harvesting and Storing the Corn Crop 

Harvesting Corn: Time of harvesting, 304; Methods 
of harvesting, 305; Effect of method of harvesting 
on yield of grain, 306; Yields of forage by different 
methods of harvesting corn, 307; Cutting and shock- 
ing the entire plant, 308; Harvesting the ears only, 
309; Hand methods of cutting corn, 310; Comparative 
cost of harvesting by different methods, 311; Corn 
harvesting machinery, 312; Shocking corn, 313; 
Husking corn, 314; Shredding corn, 315. Storing 
Corn: Cribs, 316; Shrinkage of stored corn, 317; 
Measuring corn in the crib, 318. 



PAGE 

251-263 



CHAPTER XXII 

Animal and Insect Enemies and Fungous Diseases of 
Corn . ........ 

Animal Enemies: Treatment, 319. Insect Enemies: 
Causes, 320; Corn bud-worms, 321; Cut-worms, 322; 
Wire- worms, 323; The corn ear- worm, 324; Chinch 
bugs, 325; Grain moths and weevils, 326. Fungous 
Diseases: Corn-smut, 327. 



264-271 



CHAPTER XXIII 

Oats 272-284 

Origin and botanical classification, 328. Structure 
and Compositio7i of the Oats: The plant, 329; The pan- 
icle, 330; The spikelets, 331; Pollination, 332; The 
grain, 333; Composition, 334. Varieties of Oats: 
Classification, 335; Varieties grown in the cotton- 
belt, 336; Red Rust -proof oats, 337; Burt oats, 338; 
Turf oats, 339; Beardless red oats, 340. Improve- 
ment of Varieties: Need of improvement, 341 ; Intro- 
duction of new seed, 342; Mechanical selection, 343; 
The seed-plot, 344; The isolation of elementary 
species, 345; Improvement by hybridization, 346. 



CONTENTS 



xvu 



CHAPTER XXIV 

Oats — Climate, Soils, Tillage Puactices and Uses 

Climate, 347; Soils, 348; Fertilizers and manures, 
349; Place in the rotation, 350; Preparation of the 
seed-bed, 351; Time of seeding, 352; Methods of seed- 
ing, 353; The open-furrow method of seeding, 354; 
Rate of seeding, 355; Subsequent care, 356. Uses of 
oats: Grain as food, 357; Oat straw, 358; Oat hay, 359; 
Oats for pasture and soihng, 360. 



PAGE 

285-295 



CHAPTER XXV 

Oats — Harvesting, Marketing, Insect Enemies and 
Diseases ........ 

Time of cutting, 361; Shocking, 362; Stacking, 
363; Thrashing and storing, 364. MarkeUng: Bleached 
oats, 365; Market grades of oats, 366. Insect enemies: 
367. Fungous diseases: Oat rust, 368; Oat smut, 369; 
The hot-water treatment, 370. 

CHAPTER XXVI 

Wheat ......... 

Antiquity of wheat, 371; Nativity, 372; Biological 
origin, 373; Botanical classification, 374. Structure 
and Corn-position of Wheat: Roots, 375; Culms, 376; 
Tillering, 377; Leaves, 378; The spike, 379; The 
spikelets, 380; Fertilization, 381; The grain, 382; 
Composition, 383. Types and Varieties of Wheat: 
Botanical classification of wheat types, 384; Einkorn, 
385; Spelt, 386; Emmer, 387; Common wheat, 388; 
Club wheat, 389; Poulard wheat, 390; Durum wheat, 
391; Polish whftat, 392; Wheat varieties, 393; Varie- 
ties for the cotton-belt, 394; Wheat-growing areas of 
the cotton-belt, 395; Improvement of varieties, 396. 



296-304 



305-322 



CHAPTER XXVII 

Wheat — Climate, Soils, Rotations, Cultural Meth- 
ods AND Harvesting ...... 



323-333 



XVIU 



CONTENTS 



Climate, 397; Soils, 398; Rotations, 399; Fer- 
tilizers, 400. Cultural Methods: Preparing the seed- 
bed, 401; Date of seeding, 402; Rate of seeding, 403; 
Methods of seeding, 404; Wheat seeding machinery, 
405; Cultivating wheat, 406; Pasturing wheat, 407. 
Harvesting Wheat: Methods, 408; When to harvest, 
409; Methods of handling as related to quality of 
grain, 410. 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

Wheat — Weeds, Insect Enemies and Fungous Dis- 
eases ......... 

Weeds, 411; Insect enemies, 412; Hessian fly, 413; 
Chinch-'bugs, 414; Fungous diseases, 415; Loose smut, 
416; Covered smut, stinking smut or bunt, 417. 



334-340 



CHAPTER XXIX 



Rye 



Origin and nativity, 418; Description, 419; Com- 
position, 420; Varieties, 421; Climate, 422; Soils and 
fertiHzers, 423; Rotations, 424; Seed, 425; Culture, 
426; Harvesting and handling, 427; Enemies, 428. 

CHAPTER XXX 



341-346 



Barley 



Nativity, 429; Description, 430; Composition, 431; 
Types of barley, 432; CUmate, 433; Soils, fertilizers 
and rotations, 434; Sowing, 435; Harvesting, 436; 
Enemies, 437. 



CHAPTER XXXI 



Rice 



Structure, 438; Composition, 439; Varieties, 440; 
Upland rice, 441; Climatic adaptations, 442; Irriga- 
tion, 443; Rice-growing sections, 444; Drainage, 445; 
Soils, rotations and fertilizers, 446; Preparation of 



347-353 



354-371 



CONTENTS 



the seed-bed, 447; Planting, 448; Irrigation prac- 
tices, 449; Harvesting, 450; Thrashing, 451; Yield, 
452. Preparation and Uses of Rice; Cleaned rice, 
453; Classification of rice products, 454; Uses, 455. 
Enemies of Rice: Weeds, 456; Insects, 457; Fungous 
diseases, 458. 



XIX 

PAGE 



CHAPTER XXXII 

The Sorghums ........ 

Biological origin, 459; Geographical origin, 460 
Botanical classification, 461; Root-system, 462 
Tillers and branches, 463; Drought resistance, 464 
Effects on the soil, 465; Fertilization and crossing, 
466; Breeding, 467; Sorghum poisoning, 468. 



372-380 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

The Saccharine Sorghums ..... 
Classification of saccharine sorghums, 469; Sumac 
sorghum, 470; Orange sorghum, 471 ; Amber sorghum, 
472; Gooseneck sorghum, 473; Honey sorghum, 474; 
Climatic adaptations, 475; Soils and fertilizers, 476; 
Preparation of the land, 477; Time, rate, and method 
of planting, 478; Cultivation, 479; Harvesting, 480; 
Manufacturing the sirup, 481; Yield, 482; Enemies, 
483. 



381-388 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

The Non-Saccharine Sorghums .... 
The grain-sorghum belt, 484; Groups of non-sac- 
charine sorghums, 485; Kafir, 486; Durra, 487; Shallu, 
488; Kowliang, 489; Broom-corn, 490; Culture of the 
grain sorghums, 491; Time, rate and method of seed- 
ing, 492; Cultivation, 493; Harvesting the grain- 



389-400 



XX CONTENTS 



sorghums, 494; Culture of broom-corn, 495; Har- 
vesting broom-corn, 496. 

CHAPTER XXXV 

Sugar-cane ........ 401-411 

Nativity, 497. Description: The plant, 498; Roots, 
499; The leaves, 500; Inflorescence, 501; The stem, 
502; Structure of the stem, 503; Amount and distri- 
bution of juice, 504; Composition of the juice, 505; 
Conditions affecting the composition of the juice, 506; 
Relative composition of cane in the Louisiana sugar- 
belt and in the coastal pine-belt, 507. Varieties and 
Improvement of Sugar-cane: Varieties, 508; Japanese 
sugar-cane, 509; Improvement, 510. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

Sugar-cane — Climate, Soils, Rotations, Fertilizers 

AND Tillage Practices ..... 412-422 

Climate, 511; Soils, 512; Rotations, 513; Fertilizers, 
514; Fertilizers for cane in the pine-belt, 516. Tillage 
Practices: Preparation of the land, 517; Time of 
planting, 518; Method of planting, 519; Keeping seed- 
cane over winter, 520; Cultivation, 521. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

Sugar-cane — Harvesting, Uses, Insect Pests and 

Diseases 423-429 

Harvesting: Time of harvesting, 522; Stripping, 
topping, and cutting, 523; Handling the harvested 
cane, 524; Yields, 525; Uses, 526. Insect Pests: The 
sugar-cane borer, 527; The southern grass worm, 528. 
Fungous Diseases: Origin, 529; Red-rot of sugar-cane, 
530; The rind disease, 531; The pineapple disease, 
532; The root-rot disease, 533. 



CONTENTS xxi 

CHAPTER XXXVIII page 

Peanut 430-442 

Nativity, 534; Distribution, 535; Description, 536; 
Composition, 537; Varieties, 538; Improvement of 
varieties, 539. Culture of Peanuts: Soil, 540; Rota- 
tions, 541; Lime for peanuts, 542; Fertilizers, 543; 
The use of stable manure, 544; Preparing the seed-bed, 
545; Planting, 546; Cultivation, 547; Harvesting. 
548; Stacking, 549; Picking, 550. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

1. Diagram showing relative value of field crops in United 

States and in cotton-belt ..... 5 

2. Diagram showing the total value of all crops and the rela- 

tive value of the leading crops for each state in the 
cotton-belt ........ 7 

3. Stalk of Lone Star upland cotton, with (a) vegetative and 

(b) fruiting branches from the same node. (U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) 13 

4. Flower of upland cotton, from the side, showing the posi- 

tion of the small calyx-lobe opposite the smallest 
bract (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 15 

5. Bracts of upland cotton inclosing bud, showing twisted 

teeth (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 15 

6. Stamens and stigmas of Egyptian cotton. (U. S. Dept. 

Agr.) 16 

7. Cotton-producing areas of the world. (After Todd.) . . 34 

8. Plant of the Jackson Limbless variety of cotton, repre- 

senting the Cluster group (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 41 

9. Plant of the Hawkins variety of cotton, representing the 

Semicluster group (U. S. Dept. Agr.) ... 42 

10. Plant of the Peterkin variety of cotton, representing the 

Peterkin group (U. S. Dept. Agr.) .... 43 

11. Plant of the Shine variety of cotton, representing the Early 

group (U. S. Dept. Agr.) ..... 44 

12. Plant of the Truitt variety of cotton, representing the Big- 

boll group (U. S. Dept. Agr.) .... 45 

13. Plant of the Allen variety of cotton, representing the upland 

long-staple group (U. S. Dept. Agr.) ... 47 

14. Cotton seeds with fibers attached. (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 57 

15. Outfit used in crossing cotton ; also buds shownng the steps 

in emasculation and a boll three days after pollination 
(Ga. Station) 65 



xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

16. Average length of the crop-growing season in days (U. S. 

Weather Bureau) ...... 78 

17. Interior view of a one-seed drop cotton planter (B. F. 

Avery & Sons Plow Co.) ..... Ill 

18. Adult boll-weevil showing characteristic teeth on front legs 

which serve to distinguish this insect from other 
weevils (Paddock) 127 

19. Showing variation in size of boll-weevils (Paddock) . 128 

20. Root distribution of corn at silking time (U. S. Dept. 

Agr.) 152 

21. Structure of corn plant at different stages of growth 

(after Bull) 155 

22. Ear of corn showing tendency to laminate (after Harsh- 

berger) ........ 158 

23. Botanical parts of the corn kernel and its integuments 

(after Harshberger) ...... 159 

24. Cross section of the outer portion of a grain of corn (after 

Webber) 160 

25. Illustrating development of corn stem (after Montgomery) . 167 

26. Illustrating the process of fertilization of the corn flower 

(after Montgomery) ...... 169 

27. Illustrating structure of corn kernel at pollination (after 

Crosthwait) 170 

28. Cross-section of corn ear looking toward the base (after 

Winton) 171 

29. Illustrating the relationship between gama grass, teosinte, 

and corn (after Montgomery) .... 175 

30. A small ear of the pod-corn group . . . .178 

31. An ear of white rice pop corn (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . . 178 

32. An ear of Wliite Pearl pop corn (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . . 179 

33. A good ear of the flint-corn group (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . 180 

34. A good ear of dent corn (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . . . 181 

35. An ear of the sweet-corn group . . . .182 

36. Showing the average angle of declination of corn ears after 

five generations of breeding for erect ears (111. Sta- 
tion) 188 

37. Showing the average angle of declination of corn ears after 

five generations of breeding for declining ears (111. 
Statio"n) 189 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxv 

FIG. PAGE 

38. Showing effect of five generations of breeding for high ears 

and low ears (111. Station) ..... 199 

39. Diagram showing method of producing cross-bred seed of 

corn 209 

40. Corh harvesting tools ....... 256 

41. A corn-shocking horse (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . . 259 

42. Illustrating a method of cutting and shocking checked 

corn to economize steps (Farmers' Bulletin, 313) . 260 

43. Husking peg and husking hook (after Montgomery) 261 

44. Ear of corn showing characteristic injury by the corn- 

weevil (Paddock) 269 

45. Corn smut (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 271 

46. Plats of winter oats in November at the Maryland Agri- 

cultural Experiment Station, College Park, Md. 

(U. S. Dept. Agr.) 280 

47. Smut of oats, showing a smutted head and for comparison 

a sound oat head (U. S. Dept. Agr.) .... 303 

48. Diagrammatic section through the stem of wheat about 25 

days after planting, (enlarged) (after Hayes and Boss) 307 

49. A wheat leaf (after Hunt) 308 

50. Front and side view of spikelet of wheat (after Hunt) . 309 

51. Illustrating the opening and closing of the wheat flower 

(after Hayes and Boss) ...... 310 

52. The reproductive organs of wheat (after Hayes and Boss) 311 

53. Cross-section and transverse section of a grain of wheat 

(Hunt's Cereals in America, p. 36) .... 312 

54. Representative heads of five varieties of hard winter and 

hard spring wheat (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . . .316 

55. Heads of some beardless winter varieties of wheat (U. S. 

Dept. Agr.) . . . . .317 

56. Heads of some bearded winter wheat varieties (U. S. 

Dept. Agr.) 318 

57. Heads of Tennessee Winter barley, side and front views; 

also detached kernels with the awns removed (U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) 348 

58. A grain of 2-rowed barley (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . 349 

59. High grade barley grains with the glumes removed to show 

the embryo with its collar-like scutellum (U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) ....... 349 



xxvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

60. Loose smut of barley, showing five smutted heads at vari- 

ous stages of development and for comparison a 
sound barley head (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . 352 

61. Typical heads of five varieties of rice together with the un- 

hulled and hulled grains (Texas Station) . . . 357 

62. Blue Rose rice (La. Station) ...... 358 

63. Two heads of Milo showing desirable form (on left) and 

undesirable form (on right) U. S. Dept. Agr.) . . 378 

64. Three plants of Blackhull Kafir, 5.5 feet high, selected for 

low stature and high yielding power (U. S. Dept. 

Agr.) 379 

65. A head of Orange sorghum (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . 383 

66. Heads of four varieties of Kafir (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 391 

67. Milo heads; one pendent, one erect (U. S. Dept. Agr.) 392 

68. Milo seeds, hulled and unhulled (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . 393 

69. Two heads of shallu (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . . . .394 

70. Broom-corn fruit with chaff (after Winton) . . . 396 

71. A field of sugar-cane (La. Station) . .... 402 

72. Spanish type of peanut (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . . 434 

73. Commercial types of peanuts (U. S. Dept. Agr.) . 435 

74. Machine potato digger adapted for harvesting peanuts 

(U. S. Dept. Agr.) 441 

75. Laborer building a stack of peanut vines, showing method 

used. Completed stacks in background (U. S. Dept. 
Agr.) 442 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE 
COTTON-BELT 

CHAPTER I 
CLASSIFICATION AND VALUE OF FIELD CROPS 

The term "field crops," in its broadest sense, includes 
all crops grown in cultivated fields under an extensive 
system of culture. Horticultural crops may be defined 
as those crops which are grown in relatively small areas 
under systems of intensive culture. They are the fruits 
and vegetables. There are some exceptions to this rule. 
For example, sugar-beets and tobacco are field crops that 
require intensive culture. On the other hand, fruits and 
vegetables are frequently grown in large areas. 

No satisfactory classification of field crops has, as yet, 
been made, on account of the new uses to which plants 
are constantly being put and also because one crop may 
be used for a variety of purposes. For convenience in 
study and in describing methods of culture, field crops 
have been grouped into several classes. 

1. Classification by use. — According to use, crops are 
commonly grouped as follows: 

Cereal or grain crops, as corn, wheat, oats, rye, barlej', 
and rice. 

Forage crops, including the grasses and legumes cut 
for hay, fodder, silage, or for feeding green. 

Legumes for seed, as beans, lentils, and peas. 

1 



2 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Fiber crops, as cotton, flax, and hemp. 
Root crops, as beets, turnips, and carrots. 
Tubers, as Irish potatoes. 
Sugar plants, as sugar-beets and sugar-cane. 
Stimulants, as tobacco, tea, and coffee. 

2. Classification for the study of cropping systems — 
For the purpose of studying crop rotation, field crops are 
divided into six general groups. These are grain crops, 
grass crops, cultivated crops, catch-crops, green-manure 
crops, and cover-crops. 

In this classification the grain crops include all crops 
that are grown primarily for grain and receive no cultiva- 
tion from seed time until harvest. The grass crops include 
those crops most commonly grown for hay, or pasture, 
such as Bermuda-grass, timothy, Kentucky blue-grass, 
alfalfa, red clover, crimson clover, and the like. The 
cultivated crops, as the name signifies, include all crops 
so planted as to permit or require intertillage. The term 
"catch-crop" is used to designate those crops that are 
used as substitutes for staple crops which, on account 
of unfavorable conditions, have failed after being planted. 
They are quick-growing crops such as millet, buckwheat, 
rye. Green-manure crops are crops that have been planted 
for the purpose of producing organic matter to be plowed 
mto the soil. Cover-crops are used to prevent erosion 
or leaching, In some cases one crop may be used for two 
or more of the above purposes. 

3. Important botanical groups. — The classifications 
given above are not based on any botanical relationships 
whatever. With few exceptions the important field crops 
belong to two families, namely, the Graminese or grass 
family and the Leguminosae or legume family. The 
former includes all of the cereals, except buckwheat, and 



CLASSIFICATION AND VALUE OF FIELD CROPS 3 

perhaps three-fourths of the cultivated forage crops. 
The latter family, so called because the seeds, in most 
cases, are borne in a pod or "legume," includes the true 
clovers, alfalfa, the vetches, peas, beans, and the like. 
The Irish potato and tobacco belong to the nightshade 
family, Solanacese, while cotton belongs to the mallow 
family, Malvaceae. 

VALUE OF FIELD CROPS 

According to the 1910 Census, the leading farm crops 
in the United States possessed for the year 1909 the follow- 
ing values: 



Crop 



Millions 

OF ICrop 
Dollars 



Millions 

OF 

Dollars 



Crop 



Millions 

of 
Dollars 



8. Barley 92 



9. Sweet potatoes 35 



1. Corn 1,438 

2. Hay and forage 824 

3. Cotton 704 

4. Wheat 658 

5. Oats 415il2. Dry beans 

6. Potatoes 166 13. Rye 

7. Tobacco 104 14. Sugar-beets 



10. Flax seed . . 

11. Sugar-cane 



15. Peanuts 18 



16. Rice 16 

28 17. Dry peas 11 

26 18. Kafir & milo. . 11 

22 19. Sorghum 10 

20 20. Buckwheat ... 9 
19! 



Below is given the 1909 value of the eleven field crops 
treated in this text for the cotton-belt states only: 



Crop 



Millions] 

OF Crop 
Dollars 



Millions 

OF Crop 
Dollars 



1. Cotton 699,5. Sugar-cane .... 26 

2. Corn 335J6. Rice 16 

3. ^\^leat 30 7. Peanuts 14 

4. Oats 28'8. Kafir & milo ... 6 



Millions 

OF 

Dollars 



9. S w ee t so r- 
ghum 5 

10. Rye. . 0.6 

11. Barley 0.2 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



The states comprising the cotton-belt are North Car- 
ohna, South Carohna, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mis- 
sissippi, Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, Ai'kansas and 
Tennessee. 

In 1909, all farm crops in the United States occupied 
311,293,382 acres and had a total value of $5,073,997,594, 
which was 92.5 per cent of the value of all crops, since 
these totals did not include orchard fruits, nuts, flowers, 
nursery and forest products on farms, amounting to a 
total of $413,163,629, for which no acreage was reported. 

The cotton-belt, with 25.6 per cent of the land area of the 
continental United States, 33.7 per cent of the farm area, 
and 24.4 per cent of the improved land in farms, had 25.8 
per cent of the crop acreage and produced 29.3 per cent 
of the value of all crops in the United States with acreage 
reported. 

4. Rank of the cotton-belt states. — The total value 
of all crops for each state in the cotton-belt for 1909, to- 
gether with the percentage value of the United States' 
crop produced in each state, is shown below: 

Table 1, Showing Total Value of all Crops with Acreage 
^ Reports 

Crop of 1909. Millions of Dollars 



U.S. 


Tex. 


Ga. 


Miss. 


S. C. 


Ala. 


Okla. 


N. C. Ark. 


Tenn. La. 


Fla. 


5,074 


287 


214 


139 


136 


136 


130 


128 109 


108 73 


26 


Per Cent of Value of U. S. Crops Produced in Each State 


100 1 5.7 |'4.2 1 2.8 | 2.7 | 2.7 ] 2.6 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 1.5 | 0.5 



Texas ranks first, having produced two-thirty-fifths of 
the value of the entire United States' crop. Florida ranks 
last, having produced one-two-hundredths of the value 
of the country's crop. 



CLASSIFICATION AND VALUE OF FIELD CROPS 5 

5. Importance of field crops in the cotton-belt. — 

Below is shown the relative hnportance of the eleven field 
crops treated in this text to the agriculture of both the 
United States and the cotton-belt: 

Table' 2, Showing Percentage of Entire Acreage Occupied 
BY Each Crop 




VALUE Of ALL CBOP5 VALUE^Of^ALL CRO P5 

Fio 1. -Diagram stowing relative value of field erops in United States 

and in cotton-belt. 

Percentage of Value of all Crops Represented in^achCrop 



U S ■ 13.9128. 4113.0 
Cotton-belt .' 47.0|22.5| 2.0! 



8.4 
1.9 



0.5 
0.2 



0.3 
1.1 



0.4 
0.9 



0:2 
0.4 



0.2 
0.4 



0.4 11.8 
0.0410.01 



In 1909, practically all of the cotton, sugar-cane, rice, 
and peanuts grown in the United States was produced in 
the cotton-belt. On the other hand, a relatively small 
percentages of the small-grain crop was produced in the 



6 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

cotton-belt. Barley, for example, occupies 1 acre in 40 
of all United States' crops and 1 acre in 5,000 in the cotton- 
belt. Corn occupies a greater relative area and returns a 
smaller relative value in the cotton-belt than in the entire 
United States. 

The total value of all field crops and the relative value 
of the leading crops for each state in the cotton-belt are 
graphically shown in Fig. 2. 

In the cotton-belt cotton occupies two-fifths of the land 
in crops and produces one-half the value of all crops. 
Texas, Georgia, Mississippi and South CaroHna are the 
four leading cotton states in order of rank. The 1910 
Census shows that the acreage of corn and cotton is almost 
equal in the cotton-belt. The value of the cotton crop 
is 2.1 times the value of the corn crop. 



CLASSIFICATION AND VALUE OF FIELD CROPS 7 



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CHAPTER II 

DESCRIPTION OF THE COTTON PLANT 

The cotton plant is indigenous to the tropical regions 
of both hemispheres. In its native home it is a perennial. 
The cotton of the southern United States, and of all im- 
portant cotton-producing countries, is an annual, being 
killed by the low temperatures of winter. Under cultiva- 
tion it is a much branched herbaceous shrub ranging in 
height from two to six feet. Cotton is grown primarily 
as a source of fiber. From the seed various by-products of 
considerable value are obtained. 

6. The root-system. — When a cotton seed is placed 
in a warm, moist soil, it absorbs water and swells. Sub- 
sequently the seed coverings burst and the radicle, and 
the plumule, a short time later, grow out and elongate 
in opposite directions. The radicle grows to form the 
root-system while the plumule develops into the aerial 
portion. The cotton plant, while possessing a strong tap- 
root, produces the greater portion of its feeding roots in 
the upper two to six inches of soil. The copious branching 
which the root system exhibits enables the cotton plant 
to draw its food supplies from a large area of soil. 

7. Types of roots. — Cotton roots may be classed as 
primary roots, and secondary roots. The primary root is 
commonly termed the tap-root. It is a continuation of 
the above-ground stem and from it the secondary roots 
branch. The depth to which the primary root grows is 
determined largely by the drainage conditions and the 

8 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COTTON PLANT 9 

character of the soil. After reaching the upper surface 
of the water-table in the soil, the primary root either 
ceases to grow or is diverted horizontally. Balls/ working 
with Egyptian cotton, traced a tap-root to a depth of more 
than seven feet. In a sandy soil and subsoil the South 
Carolina Station traced well-developed tap-roots to a 
depth of nearly three feet without coming to their end." 
Conversely, it was found that cotton plants growing on 
heavy clay loam soil very rarely produced well-developed 
tap-roots more than nine inches in length. Under very 
unfavorable conditions the tap-roots may be absent. 

The secondary roots branch off laterally from the 
primary root. They again produce other laterals and this 
branching process continues until the soil is completely 
filled with a net-work of copiously branched roots to a 
depth that varies from two to eight inches. The lateral 
roots begin to grow below the surface of the soil at a 
depth varying froiii one-half inch to three inches. If the 
soil is moist they may come almost to the surface a short 
distance from the plant. In almost any soil the secondary 
roots develop sufficiently near the surface to be injured by 
deep cultivation. After growing in a lateral direction for a 
distance varying from two to three feet, some of the 
secondary roots grow abruptly downward to a depth of 
three or more feet, presumably for the purpose of aiding the 
plant in securing moisture. 

The absorptive power of the secondary roots is due 
largely to the root-hairs. These root-hairs are microscopic 
in size and never develop into true roots. They comprise 
an infinite number of delicate out-growths of the surface 
cells of the root, forming thin-walled hairs. They are 

1 Balls, W. L., "The Cotton Plant in Egypt," p. 33. 

2 South Carolina Station Bulletin No. 7, 1892. 



10 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

limited to a zone not far behind the growing point, 
or the apex, of the young roots. Root-hairs are very- 
short-lived. As the young root grows in length, the 
root-hairs farthest from the growing tip perish, more 
being formed continually at about the same distance from 
the apex. 

8. Functions of the root-system. — In the main, the 
functions of the root-system are: (a) to obtain food and 
water for the plant, (b) to excrete carbon dioxide and 
possibly organic acids that render plant-food available, 
and (c) to anchor the plant to the soil, and thus afford a 
firm support for the aerial portion. 

The primary function of the tap-root is probably that of 
aiding the plant to secure moisture. During periods of 
drouth it is very helpful in this respect. This is evidenced 
by the fact that it grows faster and deeper in a relatively 
dry soil than in a wet soil. The lateral roots, by their 
extensive growth and copious branching, are the means of 
producing the infinite number of root-hairs. The inter- 
spaces of the soil are penetrated by the young growing 
portions of the roots in such a way as to bring them into 
close contact with the soil particles. The delicate root- 
hairs stand out at right angles to the surface of the true 
root. Consequently they are brought into very intimate 
relations with the surface of the particles. A film of 
capillary water surrounds each soil particle and contains, 
in solution, mineral plant-food which has been dissolved 
from the soil. Thus the acid juices in the root-hair and 
the solution of minerals surrounding the soil particle are 
separated only by the thin porous wall of the root-hair. 
This relationship makes it easy for the root-hairs to per- 
form their functions, namely, to absorb the water and 
soluble food in the soil, and also to excrete into the soil- 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COTTON PLANT 11 

water acids which aid in dissolving fresh suppHes of plant- 
food. While the root-hairs constitute the absorbing organs 
of the plant, a small quantity of food in solution is absorbed 
directly by the epidermal tissues of the true roots. The 
process of absorption by both the root-hairs and the true 
roots is that of osmosis.^ 

9. The stem. — The cotton plant possesses a cylindri- 
cal, erect, gradually tapering central stem ranging in 
length from two to six feet. From the nodes of this stem 
the branches arise. The stem and branches are covered 
with a tough greenish or reddish bark. Because of its 
strength, due to the relatively large percentage of bast 
fibers contained, cotton bark has been used to a limited 
extent as a coarse fiber. Inside the bark the stem is com- 
posed of brittle, white wood, which decays readily when 
plowed into the soil. 

10. The branches. — Like all true branches, the 
cotton branches arise in the axils of the leaves. As they 
are borne at the nodes on the stem their number is deter- 
mined by the length of the stems and the distance between 
nodes. The Texas Station has found that late planting 

^ "Osmosis. — -When two solutions of different density are sep- 
arated by a porous membrane, there will be first a movement of the 
weaker solution through the membrane into the stronger, and later 
a return movement, the process continuing until the two solutions 
have the same density. The contents of a root-hair being denser 
than the soil solution surrounding it, there is a constant movement 
of the soU solution into the root-hair. By some means the exosmosis, 
which would take place in the case of an ordinary membrane (move- 
ment of the cell solution outward), seems to be restrained in the 
root-hair, probably by some functional activity of the cell. The 
result is a much greater movement into the root-hair than exudation 
out of it. The soil solution passes from the root-hair into the root 
and is finally transmitted to the stem and leaves." — E. G. Mont- 
gomery. 



12 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

has a tendency to produce tall plants with long joints.^ 
Fertile soils containing an abundance of moisture produce 
longer jointed plants than do poor soils of a thirsty char- 
acter. It has also been found that the structure of the 
cotton plant with reference to the number and arrange- 
ment of the branches is, to some extent, a hereditary 
character and can be modified by careful selection. 

The length of the branches varies with the variety, the 
position on the main-stem, and the character of the soil. 
The largest branches are borne at the base of the plant, 
the length decreasing toward the top of the plant. This 
gives most cotton plants a cone-shaped appearance. A 
different shape, however, is presented by the "cluster 
varieties," there being only a few long basal branches; 
above these only very short branches are produced. 

Cotton branches may be classified into (1) "vegetative 
branches" and (2) "fruiting branches." Vegetative 
branches are of two kinds: (a) long branches springing 
from the main-stem and having no boll-stems directly 
attached, but possessing sub-branches which bear bolls; 
(b) sterile branches whose only function is to increase the 
leaf area of the plant. The cotton plant often bears both 
a vegetative and a fruiting branch from the axil of the 
same leaf (Fig. 3) . In fact, this seems to represent the nor- 
mal branching habit. In most cases, however, one or the 
other of these branches fails to develop, only the rudiment 
of a branch being produced. The very frequent occurrence 
of the sterile branches produces leafy, unproductive plants. 
This defect can be remedied by carefully selecting seed 
from plants that produce a large proportion of fruiting 
limbs. 

11. The leaves. — Cotton leaves are borne alternately 
1 Texas Station Bulletin, No. 77, p. 20. 



DESCRIPTION OF FHE COTTON PLANT 



13 



on the stem or branch. They are petioled, somewhat 
heart-shaped, three to seven-lobed and three to seven- 
veined. The petioles 
and veins are often 
hairy. The mid- 
veins, and some- 
times the adjacent 
ones, bear a gland 
one-third the dis- 
tance from their 
base. In some cases 
these glands are ab- 
sent. Cotton leaves 
are very variable in 
size, even on the 
same plant. They 
range from three to 
six inches in length 
and from two to 
five inches in width. 
The leaves of the 
American upland 
cotton (both short 
and long staple) are 
most commonly 
three-lobed, some- 
times five-lobe d. 
The lobes are rather 
blunt, the spaces be- 
tween lobes being shallow. This is especially true as re- 
gards the big-boll kinds. Certain of the small-boll kinds, 
of which King and Peterkin are representatives, produce 
leaves having narrow sharp-pointed lobes. The leaves 




Fig. 3. — Stalk of Lone Star upland cot- 
ton, with (o) vegetative and (6) fruiting 
branches from the same node. 



14 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

of Sea Island cotton are three-lobed also, but the lobes 
are much longer and slenderer and the indentations much 
deeper than in the upland cottons. 

The principal functions of the leaves are: (1) to make 
possible the free circulation of solutions of food and air 
throughout the plant; (2) to give off the excess of water 
taken up by the roots; (3) to take up from the air the 
carbon dioxide needed to build plant-tissue; (4) to elab- 
orate plant-food from the minerals and water taken from 
the soil, and the carbon and oxygen taken from the air; 
(5) to absorb from the sun the energy necessary for the 
activities enumerated above. 

12. The vascular system. — In the description of the 
cotton leaf attention was called to the system of leaf -veins, 
ranging in number from three to seven. A careful exam- 
ination will reveal a much-branched net-work of minor 
veins springing from the larger veins. If a cross-section 
of a leaf is examined under the microscope, it will be seen 
that these veins are composed of specialized tissue of 
vessels and fibers. This fibrous tissue of the leaves extends 
throughout the petioles, the branches, the main-stem, 
and into the root-system, and is known as the vascular 
system. It is by means of this vascular system that solu- 
tions are carried from the roots to the stems and leaves. 

13. Air cavities. — Besides being supplied with food 
and water, each leaf cell must have air, or rather carbon 
dioxide from the air. To supply this there is provided 
throughout the entire leaf tissue a system of continuous 
openings, or air spaces, between the cells. These air 
cavities communicate with the exterior in all the green 
parts of the leaf. The openings through which the air 
enters are known as stomata and are most numerous on 
the under side of the leaves. By means of this delicate 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COTTON PLANT 



15 




Fig. 4. — Flower of upland cotton, from 
the side, showing the position of the small 
calyx-lobe opposite the smallest bract. 



system of air-passages, each leaf cell is, in a somewhat 
intricate manner, 
brought into con- 
tact with the ex- 
ternal air. 

14. The pedun- 
cles. — The pedun- 
cles are small stems 
connecting the flow- 
ers and later the 
bolls with the 
branch. Their 
length varies with 
the variety of cot- 
ton, and also in dif- 
ferent parts of the 
same plant. In American upland cotton the length ranges 

from one-half inch 
to two inches. 

There seems to be 
a relation between 
the length of the 
peduncle and 
"storm resistance" 
in c o 1 1 o n. The 
length should be 
such as will permit 
the boll to hang 
with its tip down- 
ward, so that the 
leafy bracts, or in- 
the lint from rain. The pe- 
so long as to cause it to bend 




— Bracts of upland cotton inclosing 
bud, showing twisted teeth. 



volucres, will 
duncle should 



protect 
not be 



16 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



abruptly, as this retards the development of the 
boll. 

15. The flowers (Figs. 4-6). — Cotton flowers are large 
and rather conspicuous. At the juncture of the peduncle 
and the flower is borne a three- (sometimes four-) leaved 
involucre. The calyx is short and composed of five united 
sepals, presenting a cup-shaped appearance. The corolla 
is free from, but inserted beneath, 
the pistil. There are five petals, 
which are often grown together at 
their base and attached to the 
lower part of the stamen-tube. 
The stamens are numerous; the 
anthers one-celled and kidney- 
shaped; the pollen-grains spheroid 
in shape, heavy and waxy. The 
ovary is sessile and three- to five- 
celled. The pistil is divided into 
parts or stigmas, from three to 
five in number. In American up- 
land cotton the pistil is divided 
stigmas, while three is the pre- 
The number of 




Fig. 6. — Stamens and 
stigmas of Egyptian 
cotton. 



into four or five 

vailing number in Sea Island cotton. 

stigmas present indicates the number of locks of seed 

cotton that will develop in that particular boll. 

In upland cotton the flowers are a >3reamy-white color 
on the morning that they open. They change to a reddish 
color the second day, and later fall. The flowers of the 
Sea Island cotton are yellowish in color. 

16. The bolls. — The ovary of the cotton flower con- 
tains from few to many ovules. After these ovules have 
been fertilized by the pollen-grains, the pistil develops 
into a more or less thickened, leathery, capsule called the 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COTTON PLANT 17 

boll. The length of time from the fertilization of the 
ovules to the production of a mature boll varies from 40 
to 55 days. The bolls are oval in shape, distinctly pointed 
at the apex and vary in size from 1.5 to 2.5 inches in length 
and from 1.25 to 1.75 inches in width. From the base of 
the boll to the apex, divisions or valves are found, from 
three to five in number. The contents of each valve are 
called a lock. The bolls of American upland cotton (both 
long and short staple varieties) usually contain four or 
five locks. The Alabama Experiment Station, working 
with upland cotton, has found that bolls with five locks 
yield more cotton per boll than bolls having only four 
locks. 

When the boll matures it opens, exposing the seed cotton 
inside. The opening is caused by the valves "separating 
along their central axis and at the same time splitting 
down the middle of the back." The valve walls after 
opening are spoken of collectively as the "bur." 

The Texas Station ^ has found that there is a relation 
between the thickness of the burs and the tendency of the 
seed cotton to be blown out by winds or beaten out by 
rains. If the burs are thin, they curl backward in opening, 
thus allowing the seed cotton to drop easily. 

17. Number of bolls to the plant. — The factors that 
determine the number of bolls to the plant are fertility of 
soil, rain-fall, climate, variety, and the structure of the 
plant with reference to the arrangement and character 
of the vegetative and fruiting limbs. Fertile soils, well 
supplied with moisture, produce plants with a larger num- 
ber of bolls than do poor, droughty soils. Excessively 
productive soils, especially as regards nitrogen, often 
produce a large amount of vegetative growth at the expense 
' Texas Station Bulletin, No. 75. 



18 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

of fruit. Close-jointed plants throughout, including the 
main-stem, the primary and fruiting limbs, bear the max- 
imum number of bolls. While this character of the plant 
is influenced to some extent by environmental conditions, 
it is also a hereditary character and can be greatly modified 
by careful seed selection, 

18. The seed. — Within each lock of cotton there are 
six to ten oblong or angular seeds. The seed tapers some- 
what toward the hilum end, terminating in a sharp point. 
The crown or free end is enlarged and rounded. The seeds 
of both long-staple and short-staple upland cotton, after 
having the lint removed, are covered with a pronounced 
fuzz which may be grayish, rusty or green in color, often 
changing color with maturity and age. The seeds of Sea 
Island cotton are naked and black. 

The cotton seed is composed of (1) the testa or hull, (2) 
the endosperm, a layer of cells composed largely of aleurone 
grains, and (3) the embryo or meat, which consists of the 
two cotyledons, the embryo sprout and the embryo root. 

The seeds of upland cotton as they come from the gin 
have been found to have the following physical composi- 
tion: linters, 10 per cent; hulls, 40 per cent; meat, 50 per 
cent. 

The legal weight of a bushel of upland cotton seed varies 
from 30 to 333^ pounds; it is usually 32 pounds. A legal 
bushel of Sea Island cotton seed is 44 pounds. 

19. The lint. — A cotton fiber may be defined as a 
unicellular hair which has been developed from the cuti- 
cle of the cotton seed. According to Watt ^ each fiber 
is composed of the following parts: (a) the cell-wall or 
cuticular envelope of the elongated hair; (b) the deposits 

iSir George Watt, "The Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of 
the World," p. 30, 



DESCRIPTION OF THE COTTON PLANT 19 

of cellulose laid down within and upon the; envelope; (c) 
the core of cell-contents filling up the central cavity. 

If a cotton fiber be examined carefully under a magnify- 
ing glass it will be found that it is broadest near or a Uttle 
below the middle and gradually tapers toward both the 
base and the apex. If the fiber is mature this examination 
will show the fiber-tube to be somewhat flattened and 
irregularly twisted. It is claimed that the number of the 
twists varies from 300 to 500 to an inch. The amount of 
twist in the cotton fiber is very important in determining 
its spinning qualities and, hence, its value. The degree- of 
twisting is, to a large extent, determined by the stage of 
maturity of the fiber. The immature fibers, on drying, 
form almost flat, structureless ribbons, with very little 
twist. In almost any lot of cotton the following classes of 
fibers may be recognized: (1) ripe; (2) half ripe, and (3) 
unripe. In addition to these three classes, a fourth class, 
namely, over-ripe fibers is often noticeable. In this class 
the fibers are spoken of as being rod-like, devoid of elastic- 
ity and unsuitable for spinning purposes. 

20. Length and strength of fiber. — The length of 
cotton fiber varies with different kinds of cotton, and to a 
slight extent with soil fertility. Duggar ^ gives the follow- 
ing as the approximately average lengths of fibers of the 
principal kinds of cotton: 

Sea Island, 1.61 inches; 

Egyptian, 1.41 inches; 

American upland, 0.93 inches; 

American long-staple, 1.3 inches. 

The fibers vary in length even on the same seed. Those 

at the base or pointed end of the seed are usually shorter 

than those borne on the apex end. This is probably due 

1 Duggar, J. F., "Southern Field Crops," p. 263. 



20 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

to the slower growth and later starting of the fibers on the 
base of the seed. In the upland cotton there is, in addition 
to the fiber proper, an " imder-fleece " (called fuzz or 
linters) which is very short, as a result of the failure of a 
number of "cuticular cells" to elongate. 

The strength of the cotton fiber varies according to its 
ripeness and fineness. From 2.5 to 15 grams represents 
roughly its breaking strength. Williams, of North Car- 
olina, found the average breaking strength of single fibers 
representing twelve different varieties, to be 6.83 grams. 
As a result of tests made by Hilgard the breaking strength 
was found to vary from 4 to 14 grams in upland cotton. 
The cotton fiber, in proportion to its size, is stronger than 
jute or flax and is three times as strong as wool. It is sur- 
passed in strength by the fibers of hemp, manila hemp, 
and silk. 



CHAPTER III 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COTTON PLANT 

A PLANT, like an animal, is dependent upon certain vital 
actions or functions to maintain life. Careful analysis 
of a living plant shows it to be made up of distinct parts, 
each part performing more or less definite functions. It 
is essential, therefore, that we become familiar with the 
more important of these functions and the relation of each 
to the well-being of the plant. 

21. The plant structure. " — The cotton plant is made 
up of innumerable cells. Each cell in the hard part of 
the plant has a somewhat thickened cell-wall, composed 
chiefly of cellulose, the substance of which paper is made. 
These cell-walls are united, the resulting tissue constitut- 
ing the skeleton of the plant. There are two kinds of 
strengthening tissues composing the plant skeleton, differ- 
ing mainly as regards the structure of the cell-wall. These 
are (1) those tissues in which the cell-walls are thickened 
at the corners only, (collenchyma) and (2) tissues in which 
the cell-walls are equally thickened throughout, (scler- 
enchyma). The former tissue is found only in the young 
growing parts of the plant, while the latter occurs in the 
older parts in which growth has ceased. 

The function of the skeleton is to give stability to the 
plant. It is by means of this strengthening tissue that a 
cotton plant supports its own weight, and resists the force 
of winds. 

22. The living substance in the plant. — Within the 
cell-walls is containcid a transparent, jelly-like substance 

21 



22 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



called protoplasm. This proptolasm constitutes the life 
of the plant. It is the center of all the activities that the 
plant manifests. Quoting from Green, ''The protoplasm 
assimilates the food which the plant requires and carries 
out all the chemical processes necessary for life. It con- 
structs the framework of the plant by which it is itself 
supported. . . Finally it carries out the processes of re- 
production." 

THE COMPOSITION OF THE COTTON PLANT 

23. Composition. — Approximately 90 per cent of the 
weight of a young, succulent cotton plant is water. The 
remaining 10 per cent is called dry matter. As the plant 
grows and becomes more woody, the percentage of water 
present decreases and the percentage of dry matter in- 
creases correspondingly. At maturity the plants are about 
60 per cent water and 40 per cent dry matter. 



Table 3, Showing Approximate Composition of Air-dry Cotton 

Plants ^ 





Water 


Ash 


Pro- 
tein 


Fiber 


Nitro- 
gen 
free 
ext. 


Fat 


Mature plant collected 
Oct. 25 

Young plant collected 
June 3 

Young plant collected 
June 25 


Per ct. 

7.36 

*10.00 

no. 00 


Per ct. 

5.81 

15.62 

14.59 


Per ct. 

9.13 

21.49 

22.09 


Per ct. 
30.94 
16.38 
18.79 


Per ct. 
42.84 
32.51 
29.98 


Per ct. 
3.92 
4.00 
4.55 



1 Bui. 33, Off. Exp. Sta., U. S. Dept. of Agr. 



* Assumed. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COTTON PLANT 23 

The dry matter is composed largely of combustible 
material, nearly all of which (;omes from the air and water. 
Four elements enter into the composition of the combusti- 
ble part. These are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro- 
gen. The ash which is left after the dry matter has been 
burned, is composed of mineral matter taken from the 
soil. Less than 2 per cent of the weight of a green cotton 
plant is secured from the soil. 

24. The essential constituents. — There are ten ele- 
ments essential to plant growth. Of these ten elements, 
four are metals and six are non-metals. The four metals 
are potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron, all of which 
the plant secures directly from the soil. Of the non- 
metals, two, sulfur and phosphorus, are secured directly 
from the soil, while nitrogen is obtained indirectly from 
the air through the soil. The remaining three are carbon, 
obtained largely from the carbon dioxide of the air, and 
hydrogen and oxygen, obtained from water (some hydro- 
gen is obtained from ammonia and some oxygen from the 
air). Those elements that are derived from the soil are 
absorbed in the form of salts. 

NUTRITION 

The growing cotton plant is dependent upon certain 
vital activities for its existence, such as the absorption 
of food and water, the assimilation of carbon dioxide, the 
digestion of the raw food materials, the giving off of oxy- 
gen and water, and the securing of the necessary energy 
for these activities. The processes which promote growth 
and repair the waste caused by the vital activities are 
called nutritive processes. 

25. The absorption of food. — The essential food 
elements were discussed in paragraph 24. The structure 



24 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

of the plant is such that all of the food materials must 
be taken up in solution or, in the case of carbon and some 
of the oxygen, as a gas. The mineral constituents obtained 
from the soil are taken in by the root-hairs with the 
stream of water. This dilute solution of food passes 
through the soft outer tissues (cortex) of the root to the 
vascular system through which it passes directly to the 
leaves. 

In taking up food, roots exhibit a selective power in 
that they take up from the soil certain elements to the 
total or partial exclusion of others. For instance, from a 
solution of sodium nitrate plants take up the nitric acid 
and leave the sodium. The continuous absorption of 
food and water by the cotton plant will depend upon cer- 
tain external conditions such as the moisture content of 
the soil, the nature and amount of plant food materials in 
the soil, the temperature of the soil, the activity of trans- 
piration, and the intensity of light. 

26. The taking up of carbon. — Approximately 50 
per cent of the weight of a water-free cotton plant is car- 
bon. The plant secures its carbon from the carbon dioxide 
of the air. It is estimated that carbon dioxide exists in 
the air in the ratio of about 3 parts in 10,000 or 0.03 per 
cent. 

As shown in paragraph 11, one of the functions of the 
leaves is to take up from the air the carbon dioxide needed 
to build plant tissue. This process is greatly facilitated 
by the large number of stomata that are thickly scattered 
over the under-surface, and to a less extent, the upper- 
surface of the leaves. One of the primary functions of 
the stomata is to serve the plant as breathing pores. The 
air containing carbon dioxide passes through the stomata 
into the air-spaces of the leaf. From here the carbon 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COTTON PLANT 25 

dioxide is ahsorbed by the leaf cells, in which it is broken 
down into carbon and oxygen. The carbon unites with 
the water which has been absorbed from the soil, the 
result being the formation of carbohydrates. This process 
is called photosynthesis. The following equation has 
been suggested as representing the changes that take place: 

6 CO2 + 6 H2O = CeHi^Oe + 6 O2 
carbon dioxide water photosynthate^ oxygen 

Most of the sugar thus formed is quickly converted into 
starch, probably in accordance with the following reaction: 

CgHigOo = CeHioOjHaO 

While the starch is manufactured in the leaves, it can- 
not be transferred in this form to other parts of the plant 
for building tissues as starch is not soluble. Consequently 
it is later changed back into sugar in which form it is 
carried to all parts of the plant, for the formation of car- 
bohydrate material. 

At the same time that the carbon dioxide is being taken 
up from the air and decomposed in the plant, ^n almost 
equal volume of oxygen is being given off from the leaves 
as a by-product. 

27. The necessary energy. — The breaking down of 
the carbon dioxide and the formation of carbohydrate 
materials in the plant, such as sugar and starch, require 
the expenditure of considerable energy. The plant se- 
cures this energy from the sunlight. The leaf cells, except 
those in the veins, contain small greqn chlorophyll bodies. 
These chlorophyll grains absorb both the carbon dioxide 
and the sunlight, and with the energy thus received, the 

1 This term is being applied in the recent plant physiologies to the 
carbohydrate produced as the result of photosynthesis. 



26 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

carbon dioxide is decomposed and various food materials 
are elaborated. The greater part of the energy which 
the plant secures from the sunlight, however, is expended 
in the evaporation of water from the leaves. 

THE GIVING OFF OF WATER 

28. We have seen that the cotton leaf is an organ for 
the reception of light and the absorption of gases. It 
is also by means of the leaves that the cotton plant rids 
itself of the large amount of surplus water absorbed by 
the roots. Not all of the leaf area, however, can be classed 
as transpiring surface. In fact, to prevent the too rapid 
loss of water, the surface of the leaf is made water-proof 
by waxes so that water can escape only at the stomata. 
Each stoma is surrounded by two guard-cells which serve 
as automatic devices for regulating the loss of water from 
the plant. The following quotation from Osterhout makes 
clear the function of the guard-cells. 

"When the water-supply is abundant, especially in 
the presence of sunlight, the guard-cells absorb water 
and expand. The pressure causes the walls that bound 
the pores or stomata to open. This is due to the fact that 
these inner walls are thicker than the outer walls. The 
effect is the same as would be produced on a rubber tube 
by thickening one side by cementing an extra strip of rub- 
ber on it. If such a tube be closed at one end while air 
or water is pumped in at the other, it will bend so that the 
thickened side becomes concave. 

"The absorption of the water by the guard-cells is aided 
in sunlight by the action of the chlorophyll grains which 
they contain; these produce sugar which aids ^the cells 
in taking up water from the other cells of the epidermis 
that have no chlorphyll grains. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COTTON PLANT 27 

"When, therefore, the water-supply is sufficient, and 
especially when sunlight, temperature and other condi- 
tions are favorable for leaf activity, the stomata open 
and permit the leaf to absorb carbon dioxide. On the 
other hand, lack of water and unfavorable conditions 
cause them to close." 

The evaporation of water is of great advantage to the 
plant, in that it regulates certain physical properties, 
especially the temperature of the plant. Again, it con- 
centrates in the leaf the food materials taken up from the 
soil. It is in the leaf that these soluble salts meet and 
combine with the food taken from the air, to form elab- 
orated food such as protein. 

REPRODUCTION 

The life-story of the cotton plant does not begin, with 
the germination of the seed. The new individual begins 
when the generative nucleus of the pollen-grain unites 
with the egg-cell nucleus of the ovule. As a result of this 
fusion the seed containing the embryo, or miniature plant, 
develops. 

29. The reproductive organs. — The organs of re- 
production are the pistil and the stamens. The pistil is 
the female organ and is composed of (1) the ovary, which 
forms the base of the pistil and contains the ovules; (2) the 
style, constituting the more or less narrowed column of 
the pistil, and (3) the stigmas, composing that part of the 
pistil, which receives the pollen-grains. The stamens are 
the male organs of the plant. Each stamen consists of 
(1) a filament, or thread-like stalk, and (2) the anther — 
a somewhat kidney-shaped body borne on the apex of the 
filament and bearing the pollen-grains. 

In Egyptian cotton the style is rather long, carrying 



28 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

the stigmas well above the stamens, so that' insects may 
be required for fertilization. In flowers of American 
upland cotton the style is usually shorter and the stigmas 
may remain buried among the stamens, insuring self- 
fertilization.^ 

30. The pollen-grains and egg-cells. — The pollen- 
grains in cotton are almost spherical in shape. They are 
composed of two coats or walls which inclose a thickened, 
granular fluid. ^ According to Balls ^ the pollen-grains 
are formed in groups of four. At first, each grain posses- 
ses only one nucleus. Later the nucleus divides, forming 
the two male gametes. At this stage the pollen-grain is 
mature. 

Balls states that the spores which become the egg-cells 
(megaspores) are also formed in groups of four, "but the 
three nearest the base of the ovule abort and only the 
fourth member becomes a megaspore." As this megaspore 
develops, there are given off two polar nuclei, the function 
of which will be explained in the next paragraph. 

31. Fertilization. — The method by which the pollen- 
grain reaches and fertilizes the egg-cell in cotton is out- 
lined by Balls as follows: 

"The sugar solution excreted by hairs on the style 
retains the pollen-grain and causes it to germinate. The 
single pollen-tube traverses the tissue of the style and the 
conducting tissues till the end enters one . of the loculi, 
along the wall of which it passes till it finds the micropyle 
of an ovule. Traces of branching may be seen at this 
point. Passing through the micropyle channel to the 

1 Bureau of Plant Ind. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 222, p. 20. 

2 Watts, " The Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World," 
p. 344. 

3 Balls, W. L., " The Cotton Plant in Egypt," p. 10. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COTTON PLANT 29 

nucellus, it bores through the tissues of the latter, and 
after Utcrally squeezing its way through the firmer wall 
of the niegaspore, the end of the tube swells up and bursts. 
From the torn end escape the two male gametes, one of 
which passes to and fuses with the egg-cell, forming a 
zygote, and thus beginning a new life-history. The other 
male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei, and the 
triple nucleus thus formed serves later to provide the 
endosperm. 

"The process is exceptionally rapid. Fertilization is 
normally completed within thirty hours after the first 
opening of the flower, i. e., by the afternoon of the follow- 
ing day." 

32. The embryo. — A period ranging from 40 to 60 
days elapses from the time the cotton flower opens until 
the mature boll is formed. During this time the embryo 
is slowly developing inside the fertilized ovule, or seed. 
When the embryo is one week old it has been found to 
be just visible to the naked eye. It is somewhat heart- 
shaped in general outline. The pointed end develops 
into the radicle, or first root, while the two lobes go to 
form the first leaves of the embryo. These first leaves 
(cotyledons) are broader than the seed in which they are 
contained, and hence are much folded within the seed coat. 
It is in these first miniature leaves or cotyledons that 
the oil content of the cotton seed is contained. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF COTTON 

Cotton belongs to the natural order Malvales. This 
order of plants includes herbs, shrubs, and trees, nearly 
all of which bear showy, involucrate flowers with calyx 
of distinct or partially united sepals. The order Malvales 
comprises three families of plants, namely, Tillacese or 
linden family, Sterculiacese or chocolate family, and 
Malvaceae or mallow family. Cotton belongs to the latter 
family and to the genus or subfamily, Gossypium. 

33. Malvaceae or mallow family. — This family in- 
cludes largely tropical plants, the species diminishing 
rapidly in number and prevalence as we recede from the 
equator. According to Watt, they are also more numerous 
in the northern tropics of the New than of the Old World. 

The mallow family includes, besides cotton, some of 
the silk cottons, and several well-known bast-fibers, among 
which is the hemp-leaved mallow of southern Europe. 
Okra, and a few cultivated flowers, such as hollyhocks, 
hibiscus, and althea or "rose of Sharon," are also members 
of this family. From the industrial standpoint the cotton 
plant is, by far, the most important member of the mallow 
family. 

One of the chief distinguishing features of the mallow 
family is that the stamens unite to form a tube around the 
pistil. Also the anthers are one-celled. 

34. The genus Gossypium. — This genus includes all 
species of both wild and cultivated cottons. The plants 

30 



- THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF COTTON 31 

in this genus are characterizctl by possessing erect branch- 
ing stems. The leaves are petioled and pahnately lobed. 
The flowers are showy. There are five sepals united into 
a cup-like calyx; also five petals, of whitish or yellowish 
color, often turning pink. The seeds are angular and 
wooly, or, more rarely, naked. In this genus the stigmas 
grow together and usually number from three to five, 
according to the number of locks that will be contained in 
the mature boll. 

35. Number of species. — There has been much dif- 
ference of opinion among botanists as to the number of 
species composing the genus Gossypium. Watt, in "The 
Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World" describes 
29 species of cotton, many of which have never been re- 
corded as seen under cultivation. Duggar ^ states that as 
many as fifty-four species of Gossypium have been de- 
scribed, most botanists, however, reducing the species 
to a much smaller number. It is quite possible that, as 
a result of modification due to hybridization and climatic 
factors, names of species have in many cases been need- 
lessly multiplied. 

Much confusion has also been caused as a result of mis- 
naming species. For example, American upland cotton, 
{Gossypium hirsutum) has frequently been referred by 
American authors to Gossypium herhaceum, a species of 
Asiatic cotton. Recent studies have shown these two 
species to be quite dissimilar. 

36. Classification of species. — The large number 
of both wild and cultivated species of cotton is classified 
by Watt ^ into five sections. This classification is based 
largely on the following characters: (1) the position and 

1 Duggar, J. F., " Southern Field Crops," p. 275. 

2 Watt, " The Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World." 



32 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

condition of the bracteoles; (2) the presence or absence 
of nectar-yielding glands; (3) the nature of the floss and 
fuzz that surrounds the seed. The distinguishing features 
of each section are given below. 

Section 1. — Species with a fuzz but no floss. This 
section includes a number of wild species, none of which 
are known ever to have been cultivated. The bracteoles 
are free, and the seeds are covered with a firmly adhering 
fuzz, but there is no trace of a true floss. These species 
of cotton are said to be distributed from the western coast 
tracts and islands of America to Australia. 

Section 2. — Fuzzy-seeded cottons with united bracte- 
oles, mostly Asiatic species, comprising both perennial 
and annual shrubs. In all the species of this section the 
bracteoles are united below and the seeds are covered with 
an inner coating of velvet (fuzz) and an outer of wool 
(floss). With one or two exceptions these species comprise 
cultivated types. The two most important species in 
this group are Indian cotton (Gossypiurn obtusifoliwti) and 
Bengal cotton {Gossypium arhoreum). 

Section 3. — Fuzzy-seeded cottons with free bracteoles. 
— American species with thickened leaf-stems and often 
bearing conspicuous external and internal glands. The 
seeds are large and covered with a distinct and complete 
fuzz and a firmly adherent floss. The leaves are gen- 
erally large, broad, and hairy. Both v/ild and culti- 
vated species are represented in this section. The 
two most important species are American upland cotton 
{Gossypium hirsutum) and Peruvian cotton {Gossypium 
peruvianum) . 

Section 4. — Naked-seeded cottons with the, bracteoles 
free or nearly so and glands conspicuous. — • Both Old 
and New World forms are included in this section. These 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF COTTON . 33 

are mostly cultivated cottons, the most important species 
being Sea Island cotton (Gossypium barbadense). 

Section 5. — Naked-seeded cotton with bracteoles 
quite free and floral glands absent. — So far as known, 
only one species belongs to this section (Gossypium 
Kirkii). This is a wild cotton found in east and central 
Africa. It has never been seen under cultivation. 

37. The extensively cultivated species. — A relatively 
large number of cotton species have been described. Only 
a small number of these are of decided agricultural im- 
portance. The principal species are grouped into Ameri- 
can and Asiatic cottons. The species comprising the 
American group are Upland cotton, Sea Island cotton, 
and Peruvian cotton. The important species of the Asi- 
atic group are Indian cotton and Bengal. 

38. American upland cotton {Gossijpium hirsutum). — 
This species forms more than 99 per cent of the cotton 
crop of the United States. It embraces both the short- 
staple and the long-staple varieties of upland cotton. The 
chief difference between these two classes of cotton lies 
in the length of the lint, that of short-staple varying from 
^ to iVs inches, while the long-staple ranges from 13^ to 
1^<4 inches. Between these classes is an intermediate 
type known as "Benders" or "Rivers" which is grown 
chiefly on bottom land. 

The plants of American upland cotton are erect, rather 
coarse, much-branched, and relatively short-limbed. 
The shoots, leaf-stalks, and veins are clothed with an 
abundance of short hairs, giving the plants a dust-coated 
appearance. The leaves are generally 3-lobed, the lobes 
being rather short and blunt. The bolls are not so dis- 
tinctly pointed as in Sea Island cotton and are usually 
4-Iocked, sometimes 5-locked. The seeds are large and 



34 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 




THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF COTTON 35 

coveretl with a prououiicecl fuzz which gives theiii a green- 
ish or grayish color. The Hnt adlieres very firmly to the 
seeds, necessitating the use of the saw-gin to remove it. 

It is thought that American upland cotton originated 
in Central America where it has been cultivated since 
prehistoric times. Dewey maintains that this cotton came 
originally from Mexico, it being the same type as that 
cultivated by the Moqui Indians long before the coming 
of white men to this continent. 

39. Sea Island cotton (Gossypium harhadense) . — The 
growth of this species of cotton is restricted to the 
James and Edisto Islands and the adjacent mainlands 
along the coast of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. 
The best grade of Sea Island cotton is produced on the 
two islands mentioned where the farmers have practiced 
rigid seed selecting for many years. This cotton presents 
a rather uniform type throughout the area to which it is 
adapted, not having been split up into distinct types or 
groups of varieties. There are two reasons for this. Tno 
first is the narrow geographical range under which it is 
grown, while the second is the fact that the breeders of 
Sea Island cotton have been selecting for one and the same 
purpose — to obtain staple of high quality. 

In habit of growth. Sea Island cotton differs somewhat 
from the upland cotton. The plants are rather tall and 
bear long slender branches. The leaves are 3- to 5-lobed, 
the lobes being deep and distinctly pointed. The stems 
and leaves are smooth or glabrous with the exception of a 
very scanty coating of hairs on the leaf-stems and veins. 
The flowers are of a pale yellow color, each petal bearing 
red spots near its base. The bolls are 3- sometimes 4- 
locked, are much smaller and slenderer than those of up- 
land cotton, and are more or less pointed. The seeds are 



36 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

naked, black, ovate in shape and present a smooth surface. 
The hnt is long (1)^ to 2 inches), silky, pure white, and 
rather easily removed from the seed. 

It has been claimed by some authors that Sea Island 
cotton is indigenous to the West Indies, especially Barba- 
dos. However, the recent and thorough studies made by 
Watt indicate that Sea Island cotton is a "modern devel- 
opment" and that there is no evidence to show that it is 
indigenous to Barbados. On the other hand. Watt makes 
reference to the fact that this species of cotton is so closely 
associated with Gossypium vitifolium, a vine-leaved, long- 
staple cotton of South America, as to suggest that the 
indigenous habitat is somewhere in South America. 

40. Peruvian cotton (Gossypium peruvianum) . — This 
is a South American cotton , but comprises most of the 
important varieties now grown in Egypt. It is met with 
in nearly all important cotton growing countries. Within 
recent years certain varieties of this cotton, notably Mit 
Afifi, Yuma, and Jannovitch, have been successfully grown 
in the Colorado River region in southern Arizona, and in 
southeastern California. 

The plants of this species resemble Sea Island cotton 
in habit of growth. They are rather tall and produce long, 
flexible branches. The flowers are sulfur-yellow. The 
seeds are large and, unlike Sea Island cotton, are covered 
with a distinct gray or greenish fuzz, although in some 
varieties the seeds are reported to be naked. The lint is 
intermediate in length between American upland cotton 
and Sea Island cotton, and is usually of a yellowish or 
brownish color. A few varieties of Peruvian cotton pro- 
duce white lint and are thought to have descended in part 
from Sea Island cotton. 

41. Indian cotton (Gossypium ohtusifolhim). — This 



THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF COTTON 37 

is a tlistinc'tly Oriental .species comprising tlie cliief vari- 
eties of cotton grown throughout India. It is also met 
with in Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago. 

The plants are rather small, shrubby, and much- 
branched, the branches being rather slender. The leaves 
are small and possess from three to five obtuse lobes. 
The flowers range in color from bright yellow to purple. 
Indian cotton is less productive than American short- 
staple cotton and the lint is of an inferior grade. 

42. Bengal cotton (Gossypium arboreum). — This is 
another important cotton of the Orient, especially of 
India. Ordinarily the plants grow to be much larger than 
any of the other important species described. The lint 
is short and of a very inferior grade. 



CHAPTER V 

COTTON VARIETIES 

Probably more than 100 distinct varieties of cotton 
are being grown in the southern United States. The 
names representing different varieties will far exceed this 
number but many of the so-'Called varieties differ only 
in name. 

43. What is a variety? — There is muph difference of 
opinion as to what constitutes a variety. Generally 
speaking, a variety may be defined as a subdivision of a 
species, the individuals of which differ from the remainder 
of the species in one or more of the typical characters and 
which propagate true to seed except for simple individual 
variations. 

Groups of individuals derived from a variety which 
differ from the original variety only in such qualities as 
yield or hardiness and do not differ in visible taxonomic 
characters, are recognized by Webber as strains rather 
than varieties or races. 

44. Origin of varieties. — The existing varieties of 
cotton owe their origin mainly to the following causes: 

(1) Natural selection as affected by environment. 

(2) Artificial selection. In the making of these selec- 
tions two general methods have been employed, namely, 
(a) the method often spoken of as "mass selection" in 
which the farmer merely selects seed for his general crop 
from the best plants in his field, no attempt being made to 
study separately the progeny from the individual plants; 

38 



COTTON VARIETIES 39 

(b) the method in which the progeny of a single ideal plant 
is made the basis of a new variety. 

(3) Artificial crosses by which one or more of the im- 
portant characters of both parents have been united in the 
progeny. 

(4) Natural crossing resulting largely from the trans- 
ference of pollen by insects from the anthers of one variety 
to the stigmas of another. 

Cotton improvement by selection and crossing is taken 
up more in detail in a subsequent chapter. 

45. Stability of varieties. — Cotton varieties are sel- 
dom kept pure. It is the common tendency for any im- 
proved variety to degenerate if consistent selection is not 
carried on every year. This degeneration is partially due 
to the rapid multiplication of undesirable plants. 

When two different varieties of cotton are grown in 
close proximity, a certain amount of crossing takes place 
for the reason that insects carry pollen from flower to 
flower. This tends to break the stability of both varieties. 

46. Influence of soil and climate. — It is a well-known 
fact that a variety of cotton when grown for a number of 
years under a given set of conditions, will gradually adjust 
itself to its surroundings. The time required for complete 
adjustment to take place varies with different varieties. 
Some varieties, of which King's Improved is an example, 
require only one or two years in which to become adjusted 
to almost any part of the cotton-belt. Others require from 
three to six years. 

Some varieties are especially fitted to certain conditions 
of soil and climate and usually are not profitable when 
grown in new localities. There are even varieties best 
adapted to poor lands. It is claimed that Beat-All, a 
variety very popular in some parts of Georgia when grown 



40 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



on poor land, is not profitable on rich land. In fact, when 
tested on the rich soil at the Georgia Experiment Station, 
it ranked 24th in 1906 and 26th in 1907. 

There is experimental evidence to the effect that soil 
and climate regulate with considerable uniformity such 
characters as the number of bolls and seed per pound of 
lint cotton, and also the percentage of lint. Data per- 
taining to these characters, as exhibited by different 
varieties of cotton sent out by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture in 1907 and grown at four state 
experiment stations, are given below: 



Table 4. — Results of Tests of Five Varieties of Cotton 
Showing the Relative Number and Size of Bolls and Seeds 
AND the Percentage of Lint to Seed when the Plants were 
Grown in Different States '■ 



Variety 


Bolls per 

POUND 


Seeds per 

POUND 


Percentage of 

LINT 




La. 


Ala. 


Ga. 


Tex. 


La. 


Ala. 


Ga. 


Tex. 


La. 


Ala. 

P.ct. 
36.7 
29.8 
35.8 
32.4 
30.6 


Ga. 


Tex. 


Cook's Improved . 
Corley Wonderful . 
Gold-Standard . . . 
Pride of Georgia . . 
Sunfljj)wer 


No. 
58 
48 
74 
53 
78 


No. 
61 
54 
82 
61 
90 


No. 
64 
58 
92 
68 
98 


No. 
90 
70 

105 
71 
91 


No. 
.3650 
2670 
40.50 
3.540 
4160 


No. 
4025 
2835 
5050 
3630 
4970 


No. 
3860 
3260 
5380 
3700 
5260 


No. 
4160 
3780 
5060 
3660 
4620 


P.ct. 
38.3 
31.9 
33.5 
30.0 
29.0 


P.ct. 
39.3 
35.8 
39.6 
33.2 
31.5 


P.ct. 
30.9 
31.3 
31.7 
31.2 
25.4 


Average 


62 


70 


76 


91 


3614 


4102 


4292 


4256 


32.5 


.33.1 


35.9 


30.1 



Without exception, the bolls of all varieties were very 
small at the Texas Station, gradually increasing in size 
at the Georgia and Alabama Stations and were largest 
in every case when grown at the Louisiana Station. Also, 
the seed were smallest in Texas, following the same order 
as did the size of bolls. The percentage of lint was highest 
at the Georgia Station, and, in the main, lowest at the 
Texas Station. These results indicate quite clearly the 

1 Bureau of Plant Industry, Bui. 163, p. 13, 



COTTON VARIETIES 



41 



importance of soil aiul climate as factors infiuencing the 
variability of cotton. 

47. Classification of varieties. — It is very difficult to 
classify cotton varieties owing to tlie readiness with which 
they are cross-fertilized and the great range of variation 
of the individual plants within a variety. The most 
satisfactory classification of Ameri- 
can upland varieties known to the 
author is that proposed by Duggar 
of the Alabama Experiment Sta- 
tion which is given below: 

Group 1. — Cluster type. 

Group 2. — Semi-cluster type. 

Group 3. — Rio Grande type, of 
which the Peterkin is an example. 

Group 4. — The early varieties 
of the King type. 

Group 5. — The Big-boll type. 

Group 6. — The Long-limbed 
type. 

Group 7. — Intermediate varie- 
ties. 

Group 8. — Long-staple Upland 
varieties. 

48. Cluster type (Fig. 8). — The 
plants of this type possess the char- 
acteristic property of producing one 
or more long basal limbs with ex- 
tremely short spur-like fruiting 
limbs on the middle and upper 
parts of the main-stems. There is a tendency for the 
bolls and leaves to be borne in clusters as a result of 
the shortening of the internodes of the primary and fruit- 




FiG. 8. — Plant of the 
Jackson Limbless va- 
riety of cotton repre- 
senting the Cluster 
group. 



42 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



ing branches. The bolls are seldom large; the leaves 
on the main-stem are very large while those on the 
fruiting limbs are much reduced in size. The seeds are 
small. 

The varieties of the cluster type are adapted to rich 
bottom soils such as are found in the valleys of many 

streams in Georgia, 
Alabama, and Mis- 
sissippi. The possi- 
bility that these va- 
rieties will make a 
too rank growth at 
the expense of the 
lint production is 
very much less than 
with most other 
types. However, 
the cluster cottons 
have decreased in 
popularity among 
farmers in recent 
years as a result of 
(a) the small size of 
the bolls, (b) the 
readiness with which 




Fig. 9. — Plant of the Hawkins variety of 
cotton representing the Semi-cluster group. 



the squares and young bolls are shed during unfavorable 
weather and (c) the difficulty of picking the cotton without 
including considerable trash. 

49. Semi-cluster type (Fig. 9). — It is thought by many 
that varieties of this type form a hybrid group. The length 
of the fruiting limbs is somewhat intermediate between 
the cluster cottons and the more commonly grown types. 
While the bolls and leaves are not borne in clusters, they 



COTTON VARIETIES 



43 



are much closer together as a rule than in any of the types 
later described in this classification. The size of bolls 
and seed is quite variable. 

50. Rio Grande type. — The plants of this group are 
•slender in growth. The fruiting branches are long-jointed, 




Fig. 10. — Plant of the Peterkin variety of cotton, 
representing the Peterkin group. 

slender, and rather straight. The characters that serve 
most to distinguish the Rio Grande from other types are 

(1) a high percentage of lint, usually 35 to 40 per cent; 

(2) small, nearly naked, dark-colored seeds; (3) bolls 
medium to very small in size, the locks of cotton remain- 
ing rather compact for some time after the bolls open. 
This group is named for an early variety which was quite 



44 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



similar to the now commonly grown Peterkin cotton 
(Fig. 10). 

51. Early varieties of the King type (Fig. 11). — The 
varieties of this group have been developed largely in the 
northern section of the cotton-belt where the growing sea- 
son is relatively short. Correlated with earliness in these 




Fig. 11. — Plant of the Shine varietj' of cotton, 
representing the Early group. 

varieties are (a) small plants, (b) relatively short-jointed 
fruiting limbs, and (c) small bolls. While the plants are 
small, they present a somewhat slender, rather than stocky 
appearance. The leaves are small to medium in size 
and more deeply lobed than those of big-boll cotton. The 
seed are small and covered with a greenish or brownish 
gray fuzz. The lint is usually rather short but of good 
strength. This group comprises the earliest of the com- 



COTTON VARIETIES 



45 



monly grown American upland cottons. While earliness 
is generally considered as a desirable character, the small 




Fig. 



12. — Plant of the Truitt variety of cotton, 
representing the Big-boll group. 



size of the bolls and the short lint are undesirable char- 
acters. 

52. The Big-boll type (Fig. 12). — The distinguishing 
character of this group is the size of the boll, often meas- 
ured by the weight of dry seed cotton contained in the boll. 
The largest bolls contain from 10.5 to 11.5 grams of seed 
cotton or approximately 40 bolls to the pound. The size of 



46 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

the bolls in this group varies with the variety, soil and cli- 
mate. The smallest bolls produce approximately 6.5 grams 
of seed cotton each, requiring about 68 bolls to yield a 
pound of seed cotton. 

The plants are rather vigorous growers. The limbs 
are large and short-jointed, giving the plants a stocky 
appearance. The leaves are large, with broad, short 
lobes; seeds large, fuzzy, and dark green or brownish gray. 

An important subdivision of the big-boll group includes 
the big-boll storm-proof varieties developed west of the 
Mississippi, more especially in Texas. The leading vari- 
eties in this subdivision are Triumph, Rowden, and Texas 
Storm-proof. The development of these varieties has 
taken place on the western plains where cotton is more 
subject to severe storms than elsewhere in the cotton- 
belt. 

53. The long-limbed type. — The varieties of this 
type have been more or less abandoned because they are 
late and not very prolific. The most important repre- 
sentative of this group is the Petit Gulf variety, which 
at one time was very popular. It often happens that the 
Petit Gulf cotton is so badly mixed with other cottons 
as to make it a poor representative of the long-hmbed 
type. 

54. Intermediate varieties. — No description can be 
given of the varieties in this group. Those varieties in 
which the characters of two or more groups are combined 
so as to make it impossible to place them in any of the well- 
defined types are classed as "intermediate varieties" for 
convenience. 

55. Long-staple upland varieties. — The distinguish- 
ing character of this group is the length of the lint which 
varies from l^/ie to 1^ inches (30 to 45 mm.). The plants 



COTTON VARIETIES 



47 



are rather tall and slender with few or no primary limlw. 
The bolls are small to medium in size with 3 to 5 locules, 
and the lint is borne in rather closely matted locks. 

It is claimed that a few varieties of this group have been 
produced by cross- 
ing upland and 
Sea Island cotton. 
However, in most 
cases the varieties 
have been pro- 
duced by straight 
selection. Several 
varieties, of which 
Griffin and Colum- 
bia are examples, 
have been devel- 
oped from the big- 
boll group. 

The upland 
long-staple varie- 
ties are best 
adapted to fertile 
river bottom soils. 
They are grown 
rather extensively 
along the Red 
River in Arkansas 
and Texas, and 
along the Mississippi in Mississippi and Louisiana. 
The yield is often lower than that obtained from 
the upland varieties but the greater value of the 
lint usually more than offsets the difference in 
yield. Examples of the long-staple group are Griffin, 




Fig. 13. — Plant of the Allen variety of cotton 
representing the upland long-staple group. 



48 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Allen (Fig. 13), Columbia, Flemming, Moon, and 
Peeler. 

56. High ranking varieties. — Extended variety tests 
conducted in all of the cotton producing states furnish 
conclusive evidence that there is no one best variety of 
cotton for all conditions. The readiness with which the 
cotton plant is modified by such factors as length of grow- 
ing season, soil type, and moisture supply, has resulted 
in the development of varieties particularly adapted to 
more or less local conditions. On the western plains of 
Texas and Oklahoma the storm-proof varieties are most 
profitable. In North Carolina and Tennessee where the 
growing season is short, the early cottons are largely 
grown. Long-staple upland cottons are successfully grown 
only on rich soils such as are found in the Mississippi 
valley. 

According to information furnished the author by the 
directors and agronomists of southern Experiment Stations 
the following are representatives of the high ranking 
varieties for the different states: 



List of IIioh Ranking Cotton Varieties 

Alabama Cook 

Cleveland 
Covington-Toole 
Poulnot 
Layton 

Arkansas Trice 

Rublee 
Cleveland 
King's Improved 
Simpkin's Prolific 



COTTON VARIETIES 



49 



Georgia 



Triumph 
Cleveland 
Poulnot 
Texas Big-boll 
Sunbeam 



Louisiana 



Simpkins 

King 

Triumph 

Rublee 

Toole 

Cook's Improved 

Bank Account 

Money Maker 



Mississippi 



Cleveland 

Cooke 

Toole 

Russell 

King 



North Carolina (Raleigh Sta.) Culpepper's Improved 

Cooke's Improved 
Broadwell's Double Jointed 
Hawkins Extra Prolific 
Cleveland's Big-boll 



North Carolina 

(Coastal Plains Region) 



Russell's Big-boll 
Shine's Early Prolific 
Brown's No. 1 
Cook's Improved 
King's Improved 
Sugar Loaf 



Oklahoma 



Mebane 

Cook's Improved 
Texas Storm-proof 
Rowden 



50 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

South Carolina Cook 

Rogers 
Simpkins 
Toole 
Cleveland 

Tennessee Trice 

Cleveland Big-boll 
Wilson's Improved 
Petway's Improved Prolific 
Perry 

Texas Triumph 

Rowden 
< Alabama Wonder 

Bank Account 
Burnett 

Brief Description of Some Typical Varieties Representing 
Different Groups 

CLUSTER type 

Dickson Improved. — Early maturing; one to three basal limbs 
with fruiting limbs reduced to spurs of 2 to 6 inches in length. Leaves 
large; bolls small, rounded in shape and clustered; seeds small, 
brownish gray; lint of medium length. Rather extensively grown 
over the cotton-belt. 

Dillon. — A wilt-resistant variety developed by selection from 
Jackson Limbless by W. A. Norton of the United States Department 
of Agriculture. Plants somewhat similar to Dickson Improved, but 
resistant to wilt and storms. Popular in the coastal plain belt from 
North Carolina to Alabama. 

Jackson. — Introduced in 1894 by T. W. Jackson of Atlanta, 
Georgia. Plants rather tall and bolls closely clustered; leaves very 
large. Popular on rich soils where other types produce limbs and 
leaves at the expense of fruit. 

semi-cluster type 

Rublee. — Developed by C. A. Rublee, Seago, Texas. An early 
maturing variety, claimed to be well adapted to boll-weevil condi- 



COTTON VARIETIES 51 

tions. Bolls medium to small in size; lint short; seeds of medium size 
and of greenish color. This variety is grown to some extent in north- 
east Texas. 

Hawkins' Extra Prolific. — A standard semi-cluster variety 
developed by W. B. Hawkins, Nona, Georgia. Plants early, tall, 
pyramidal in shape. Bolls partially clustered, small to medium in 
size; lint short; seeds small and of brownish gray color. 

Boyd Prolific. — Originated by a Mr. Boyd of Mississippi. This 
is one of the oldest of the semi-cluster varieties and now exists in a 
rather badly mixed state. Some strains of Boyd cotton are more 
similar to upland long-staple than to semi-cluster cottons. The 
true Boyd prolific possesses only one or two long limbs and numerous 
irregularly jointed fruiting branches. 

RIO GRANDE TYPE 

Layton. — This variety is a strain of Peterkin developed by R. D. 
Layton of South Carolina. The plants are rather slender with long, 
drooping branches. Bolls rather small and mostly 5-locked. The 
Unt is short but the percentage is high; seeds small and of brownish 
gray color. A good poor land cotton. 

Toole. — Also a strain of Peterkin developed by W. W. Toole of 
Augusta, Georgia. The plants are somewhat similar to Layton, but 
with a slight similarity to the semi-cluster cottons. BoUs medium 
in size. Lint medium in length, strong, and the percentage high. A 
good rich land cotton. 

Money Maker. — Plants of medium height, bearing rather slender, 
rather long-jointed limbs. Bolls small; lint short. Distributed 
throughout sections of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, and 
Mississippi. 

KING OR EARLY VARIETIES 

King's Improved. — Developed from Sugar-loaf cotton by T. J. 
King of Louisburg, North Carolina. Plants slender with slender, 
short-jointed fruiting limbs. Leaves and bolls small; seeds small; 
lint short. This is a very early variety of cotton and is best adapted 
to the northern portions of the cotton-belt, especially North Car- 
oUna and Tennessee. 

Simpkins. — An early variety developed from King by W. A. 
Simpkins of Raleigh, North Carolina. Bolls somewhat larger than 
King and also bearing a higher percentage of lint. 



52 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

BIG-BOLL TYPE 

Cook's Improved. — Originated by J. R. Cook, Ellaville, Georgia. 
A rather long-branched, large-boiled cotton, although the type is 
very variable. Often the plants are short-branched; or many of the 
branches are of medium length. The lint is short but the percentage 
is high. This variety is especially susceptible to boll-rot or to injury 
by storm. 

Cleveland. — This variety is the result of 25 years of selection by 
J. R. Cleveland of Decatur, Mississippi. This variety represents a 
rather variable type, some of the plants resembling the semi-cluster 
cottons. Limbs short-jointed, boUs large; lint of medium length. 

BIG-BOLL STORM-PROOF TYPE 

Triumph. — This variety was developed from the Boykin Storm- 
proof cotton by A. D. Mebane, of Lockhart, Texas. Because of the 
relative earliness, the large size of the boll, and the storm-proof char- 
acter of this cQtton, it is the most widely grown variety west of the 
Mississippi River. The percentage of lint is high for cotton of this 
group. 

Rowden. — This variety was developed from Bohemian cotton by 
the Rowden Brothers, Wills Point, Texas. Next to Triumph it is the 
most extensively grown variety in Texas. It is medium early in 
hnaturity and is well adapted to boll- weevil conditions. The plants 
have a stocky appearance; the joints are regular and of medium 
length, the branches and usually the whole plant drooping beneath 
the weight of mature bolls, which hang downward when ripe. 

UPLAND LONG-STAPLE COTTON 

Allen Long-staple. — Developed by J. B. Allen, Port Gibson, 
Mississippi. Plants tall and pyramidal in shape, somewhat semi- 
cluster in habit of growth with irregular jointed fruiting branches. 
Bolls medium to small; lint very long and silky; seeds medium to 
small in size. 

Black Rattler. — This variety is grown quite extensively along the 
Mississippi River. It is claimed to have been developed in Bolivar 
County, Mississippi. The plants grow to be rather large and produce 
from one to three slender limbs. Bolls small, pointed, with a very 
sharp bur. The lint is rather short for a long-staple cotton averaging 
about 31 mm. or l''/3> inches. 



CHAPTER VI 
COTTON BREEDING 

It has been only within recent years that the farmers' 
interest in cotton breeding has been stimulated. Even 
now the great mass of cotton farmers rely almost wholly 
upon better methods of tillage, fertilization, and drainage 
for increased yields. "Good seed " is the least appreciated 
of the important factors in cotton production. 

There is probably no field crop more easily modified by 
breeding methods or by environment than is cotton. 
The first great triumph in securing a desirable modification 
of the cotton plant was the production of annual crops 
from the perennial tree-cottons. This permitted cotton 
cultivation to be carried beyond the natural geographical 
area of the genus, thus vastly increasing the possibility of 
its production. 

57. Reasons for breeding cotton. — The object of 
cotton breeding is the production of strains or varieties 
that are better adapted to specific conditions or require- 
ments. The ultimate benefits are increased yield and 
better quaUty. The mere production of new kinds of 
cotton without regard to merit is not cotton breeding in 
its truest sense. 

58. Need of improvement in cotton. — The great 
number of cotton farmers use any cotton seed without 
regard to variety and without practicing any selection. 
This seed as taken from the gin is, in most cases, badly 
mixed and of very low quality. Much of it has been ob- 

' 53 



54 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

tained from the last picking and is immature, or is from 
late plants of inferior type. These careless practices have 
caused a very rapid deterioration in cotton. Even the 
most promising varieties soon ''run out" unless some 
attempt is made to propagate their good qualities. It 
must be remembered that "on the seed depends the crop." 
The average cotton farmer finds the margin of profits from 
his crop very low. He can ill afford to neglect the proper 
selection of the seed which he expects to plant. 

59. Start with the best variety. — The cotton farmer 
should make sure that he starts his breeding with the best 
available foundation stock. This necessitates a carefully 
conducted variety test in which as many of the standard 
varieties as possible should be included. The result of this 
test should indicate the variety that is best adapted to 
the local conditions present on his plantation. For this 
test, a plot of land should be selected that exhibits as little- 
variation as possible in productiveness. Each variety 
should occupy a plot consisting of at least two rows of not 
less than 150 feet in length. In order to check the in- 
equality in soil productiveness, seed from the same variety 
should be planted on every third plot. The relative yields 
of these check plots will show to what extent soil produc- 
tiveness has influenced the yields of the different varieties. 
The number of plants to a plot, as well as cultural condi- 
tions, should be the same for all plots. Harvest and care- 
fully weigh the seed cotton from each variety. 

60. Qualities sought for in breeding cotton. — The 
qualities that determine the value of a cotton plant are of 
two classes: (1) those which influence yield; (2) those which 
determine quality. In order materially to increase the 
yield of a cotton variety, it is essential that special atten- 
tion be given to the individual plants, particularly with 



COTTON BREEDING 55 

reference to their structure, vigor, and rapidity of setting 
and developing the squares and bolls. 

61. Qualities associated with high yield. — While it 
is true that the plants of each distinct variety conform 
more or less to what is often termed "variety type," there 
are a number of qualities that experience has shown to be 
rather closely correlated with high yield. The most im- 
portant of these are outlined below: 

(1) The primary branches and first fruiting limbs must 
be borne rather low on the main-stem. A cotton plant that 
bears its first limbs high up on the main-stem is usually 
late and unproductive. 

(2) The internodes of the main-stem, the primary hmbs, 
and the fruiting limbs must be short. They should not 
exceed from 2 to 3 inches, especially in the lower part of the 
plant. This insm-es the production of a large number of 
nodes from which either bolls or fruiting Umbs are pro- 
duced. 

(3) The bolls must be relatively large. Aside from 
giving a larger yield, an increase in the size of bolls in- 
creases the ease and rapidity of picking, and less trash 
will be gathered with the cotton. Large bolls are also more 
storm-resistant than small bolls. 

(4) In weevil-infested districts it is essential that after 
the crop has reached the fruiting stage, the squares be set 
and the bolls developed in a short length of tune. Farmers 
often use the wrong standards for measm-ing earhness, 
such as dates of planting, the opening of the first bolls, or 
the date of securing the first bale. A cotton variety that 
opens its bolls first is not necessarily the most productive 
under weevil conditions. 

(5) The plants must be resistant to such diseases as 
wilt, root-knot, and anthracnose. The United States 



56 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Department of Agriculture has demonstrated that disease 
resistant varieties of cotton can be produced by selection. 

(6) The plants should yield as large a percentage of lint 
as possible. From 38 to 40 per cent is considered a high 
percentage of Unt. Most varieties produce a much smaller 
percentage. 

Plants that have a tendency to produce excessive leaf 
growth or to produce a large percentage of their bolls 
near the top of the plant or on the outer ends of the 
branches should be discarded. Such plants are late and 
unproductive. 

62. Characters that determine queility. — It is not 
sufficient to increase the yield of seed cotton to the acre. 
Profits are determined by the price received as well as by 
the yield per acre. The quality of the fiber is an im- 
portant factor in the determination of its value. The 
following characters are important in determining quality: 

(1) Length of fiber. — Cotton fiber should be at least an 
inch in length. This length of fiber is in greatest demand 
as it supplies the needs of the general purpose market. For 
the manufacture of high grade fabrics, longer staple, such 
as is produced by Sea Island or upland long-staple cotton 
is required. However, the quantity called for is relatively 
small as compared with the requirement for 1-inch staple. 
A plant producing fiber of less than one inch in length 
should be discarded. 

(2) Uniformity in length of fiber. — Uniformity has a 
direct commercial value in cotton. An intermixture of 
short and long fiber has the effect of greatly reducing the 
value of the entire lot. It results in an undue amount of 
waste in manufacturing. The length of the fiber not only 
varies greatly as between the individual plants of an un- 
improved variety, but different lengths of lint are often 



COTTON BREEDING 57 

produced on different parts of the same plant and even 
on the same seed. This ol)jectionable character can be 
corrected by breeding (Fig. 14). 

(3) Strength of fiber. — Much variation exists between 
cotton plants as regards the strength of the fiber produced. 




Fig. 14. — Cotton seeds with fibers attached. A and B — cotton seeds 
with fibers combed out to show uniformity and non-uniformity in 
the length of the fibers. C — Lock of Griffin cotton stretched so as 
to show joints of origin of longer fibers — a, b, c. 

Any plant should be rejected that shows itself distinctly 
inferior in strength of lint. 

(4) Color and cleanliness of fiber. — Cotton lint should 
have a rich, bright, creamy color and should be free from 
trash and dirt. 

63. Well-defined ideal necessary. — Before the cotton- 
grower attempts the selection of his seed for breeding pur- 
poses, it is essential that he have well fixed in his mind the 
important qualities sought for in breeding cotton. In 
other words, he should keep in mind a mental picture of 



58 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

his ideal plant. If this is not done, there is danger that 
lack of uniformity among the plants selected will exist, 
due to the fact that certain plants will be selected for one 
character and others for another. Little can be accom- 
plished by such promiscuous selection. 

64. Methods of improving cotton. — At least three 
methods are more or less applicable to the improvement 
of cotton. They are (1) the careful and systematic selec- 
tion and progeny-testing of superior plants; (2) hybridizing 
or crossing different varieties or species with the object 
of securing an intermingling and fixing of points of merit; 
(3) acclimatization of approved stocks from one country 
or locality to another. 

THE IMPROVEMENT OF COTTON BY SELECTION 

Systematic selection is easily the most important factor 
in the improvement of cotton. To employ this factor 
successfully the breeder must be able readily to detect 
and choose the best plants, even when a large number of 
individuals are examined. This requires a thorough 
knowledge of the points that go to make up an ideal cotton 
plant. 

65. Selection of foundation stock. — After having 
determined by variety tests the best variety for a given 
locality the breeder will, by careful study, satisfy himself 
as to what type of plant of this variety is best. He is then 
ready to make selections which are to furnish his founda- 
tion stock. 

The selection is best made immediately before the first 
picking. The picking should be delayed until a rather 
large percentage of the bolls are open. By walking slowly 
through the field, examining the plants of each row, the 
breeder should be able readily to detect those plants which 



COTTON BREEDING 59 

possess exceptional excellence. These good plants should 
be marked by tying a white rag to one of the upper 
branches. The breeder's problem is to select in this man- 
ner the two or three hundred most desirable plants in his 
entire crop. When this has been done, the selected plants 
should then be given a more detailed examination. 

This second examination should comprise not only a 
more detailed examination of the general structure of the 
plant but also an examination of hnt with reference to its 
abundance and quality. Several seeds from different bolls ' 
on the same plant should be procured, the fiber being 
carefully parted down the middle of each seed and combed 
out straight by means of a small aluminum pocket comb. 
After this has been done, the amount of lint on the seed 
and the length, uniformity, and strength of the lint can be 
easily judged. All plants should be discarded that are 
found to be very inferior with regard to any of these char- 
acters. As a result of this second examination, the number 
of select plants will probably be reduced to 75 or 100. Be- 
fore the seed cotton is picked from the select plants, they 
should be carefully labeled and numbered. The seed cot- 
ton from each plant should be placed in a small paper bag 
which is given the same number as that of the plant. 
These same bags can be taken to the field for the second 
picking, being careful that all of the seed cotton secured 
from each plant is kept to itself and properly numbered. 

66. Ginning cotton from select plants. — Small gins, 
suitable for ginning very small quantities of cotton can 
now be secured. Often an arrangement can be made, 
whereby a single gin can be disconnected from the stand 
of gins and used for this purpose. In any event every 
precaution should be taken to see that the product of each 
plant is kept together. 



60 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

67. Testing transmitting power of plants. — A good 
plant must possess the important property of transmitting 
its desirable qualities to its progeny. To determine what 
plants possess this property requires a field test. The 
seeds from each select plant should be grown in a row to 
themselves by the method known as the "plant-to-row" 
method. For this test select a uniform plot of soil that is 
representative of the soil upon which the general crop is 
to be grown. 

The above plot should be isolated, if possible, 600 to 
800 feet from any other cotton field. The object of this 
isolation is to prevent the crossing of inferior cottons 
with the selections. It is especially important that this 
test plot be a reasonable distance from cotton of a differ- 
ent variety. Sometimes the test plot is located in one 
corner of a field planted with seed of the same variety 
from which the selections were made. This should be 
done only when isolation is impossible. 

The plot should be well prepared and fertilized if neces- 
sary. As each selection is planted in a row to itself, a 
stake bearing the same number as the plant from which 
the seed was taken should be driven at the end. The 
rows should be of equal length and should, as nearly as 
possible, contain the same number of plants. A method 
highly recommended is to plant the seed in hills about 
20 inches apart, about a half dozen seeds being dropped 
in a hill. Later -the plants are thinned to one plant in a 
hill. The same cultivation and care should be given this 
test plot as is given the general crop. 

68. Selecting the best progenies. — Just before the 
first picking the test plot should be carefully gone over 
and a detailed study made of the different progenies. 
The most important problem now is to determine which 



COTTON BREEDING 61 

of the original plants have, to the greatest degree, trans- 
mitted their good qualities, such as yield, uniformity, 
length and strength of lint, to their progeny. The progeny 
row or rows that are found to be superior as regards the 
good points for Avhich the plants were selected should be 
marked for second generation selections. 

69. Making the second generation selections. — Hav- 
ing determined which are the best progenies in the test- 
plot, the breeder should immediately examine in detail 
each plant in the superior progenies, marking those which 
are nearest ideal. These good plants should be numbered 
as selected. The following method of numbering these 
second generation selections is recommended by H. J. 
Webber.^ ''If one of the best progenies is from the orig- 
inal selection No. 2, label the selection in this row 2-1, 
2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, and so on, the second number after 
the dash being the number of the individual selected 

>in this generation, while the first number, 2, is the number 
of the original selection. In the same way, if progeny 51 
is one of the best, the selections made from this would be 
numbered 51-1, 51-2, 51-3, and so on. When the third- 
generation selections are made, they should be numbered 
in the same way, separating the generation by a dash. For 
example, the selections made from progeny of 51-1 would 
be labeled 51-1-1, 51-1-2, 51-1-3." When the second- 
generation selections are made and numbered, each selec- 
tion should be picked separately into a paper bag which 
bears the same number as the plant. These selections 
are to be used for planting the breeding plot the third year. 

70. The multiplication plot. — Seed from the best 
plants left in the test-plot after the second-generation 
selections have been made should be used for planting 

> Bailey's " Cyclo. of Amer. Agr., Vol. 2," page 256. 



62 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

a field sufficiently large to furnish select seed for the gen- 
eral crop. This is known as the multiplication plot. This 
multiplication plot should be planted each year from the 
second-choice seed of the preceding test-plot, the first- 
choice seed being used each time, of course, to plant the 
test-plot of the next year. 

71. Influence of environment. — It must be remem- 
bered that such environmental factors as soil and seasonal 
conditions will greatly modify the character of a cotton 
plant. For this reason it is especially important that the 
breeding work be conducted under as nearly as possible 
the same conditions of soil and climate as prevail where 
the general crop is to be grown. It has long been known 
that river bottom soils produce somewhat longer jointed 
plants than do upland soils of a droughty character. Also 
transferring cotton from the northern part of the cotton- 
belt where the growing season is short to more southern 
sections will, to an extent, produce the same effect. Cot- 
ton that has been highly improved under the conditions 
existing in one locality, may show very little of the 
improvement when grown under conditions decidedly 
different. 

THE USE OF HYBRIDIZATION IN COTTON BREEDING 

Much difference of opinion exists among experts as 
to the value of hybridization in the improvement of cot- 
ton. However, there is little doubt that this field offers 
great possibilities to the trained breeder of plants. Re- 
sults of value can be obtained only when this phase of 
cotton improvement is made the subject of extended 
study and where good judgment is used in the selection 
of the individuals, varieties, or species that are to be 
crossed. 



COTTON BREEDING 63 

72. Reasons for hybridizing cotton. — One of the im- 
portant objects in crossing different varieties or species 
of cotton is to increase the variation in different directions 
and thereby afford opportunity for greater selection than 
would otherwise be possible. Also it is often possible 
to unite in the hybrid desirable characters that are exhib- 
ited by different individuals, varieties, or species. 

73. The nature of hybrids. — When plants of different 
varieties of cotton are crossed, the hybrid usually comes 
nearly intermediate between the two parents in the first 
generation. While it is true that these first-generation 
hybrids are nearly uniform in the characters presented, 
they are nevertheless very unstable individuals as is evi- 
denced by the general breaking up of the characters in the 
second generation, with the production of a large number 
of variations. It is in this second generation that the de- 
sirable variations are looked for. 

It has been found that the first generation of hybrids 
in cotton are almost always more vigorous than either 
parent. Especially is this true following the crossing of 
different species of cotton such as the upland and Sea 
Island. In succeeding years this increased vigor is grad- 
ually lost as the hybrid becomes fixed in type, on account 
of selection. 

74. Fixation of cotton hybrids. — As above stated, 
it is in the second generation of hybrids that all manner 
of types are formed, the separate individuals exhibiting 
the characters of the two parents in very different degrees. 
The breeder should carefully examine the individuals of 
this generation and select those which show, as nearly 
as possible, the combination of characters which it is de- 
sired to produce. These hybrids should be self-fertilized 
the next year or, in other words, each plant should be pro- 



64 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

tectecl by means of a very fine-meshed wire cage to prevent 
insects from bringing in foreign pollen. The succeeding 
year the seed from each individual should be planted in 
an isolated patch in order that it will be fertilized only 
with pollen of related progeny. In the following genera- 
tions select only those plants which comp the nearest to 
the original type and grow them in isolated patches. 
Usually from four to six years are required to breed the 
hybrids to a practical state of fixity. 

75. Method of crossing cotton. — In crossing cotton 
it is necessary that the parent plants be selected by the 
afternoon preceding the day on which the transfer of pol- 
len is to be made. Late in the afternoon several large 
flower-buds on each plant should be selected that would 
open the next morning. The anthers are at once removed 
from the buds on the plants that are to be used as female 
parents. This is best done with a small pair of scissors, 
pincers, or the blade of a pocket knife (Fig. 15). First care- 
fully cut away the greater part of every petal, thus expos- 
irig the anthers which should be removed without bruising 
the pistil, or female organ of the flower. When the anthers 
have been removed, carefully pin a small paper bag over 
the remaining part of the bud to prevent insects from 
bringing in foreign pollen. 

It is also necessary that the selected flower-buds on the 
male parent plants be covered with paper bags. This 
prevents the introduction by insects of pollen from other 
plants to the flower before the cross is made. If the buds 
have been properly selected with reference to stage of 
development, all will reach the suitable stage for crossing 
at about the same time on the following morning — 
(usually about nine o'clock). This readiness can easily 
be detected by means of the stickiness of the stigmas on 



COTTON B HEEDING 



65 



the one hand and by whether or not the anthers have 
begun to burst, setting free the pollen, on the other. When 
this stage is reached the pollen from the male buds should 
be transferred to the stigmas of the female buds. This 
can be done by pulling the entire flower bearing the pollen 
and rubbing its anthers gently over the stigmas of the 
emasculated flower until it is observed that some of the 




Fig. 15. — Outfit used in crossing cotton; also buds showing the steps 
in emasculation and a boll three days after pollination. 

pollen-grains have adhered to the stigmas and sides of 
the pistil. The paper bags should again be placed over 
the emasculated flowers and allowed to remain for four 
or five days until the small boll is formed. With a small 
tag carefully label each boll so that it may be distinguished ' 
from others. 

76. Hybridization versus selection. — For quick re- 
sults selection offers much greater possibilities in cotton 
improvement than hybridization. Owing to the large 



66 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

amount of training and experience necessary to produce 
desirable results from hybridization, the advisabiHty of 
anyone except the experienced breeder attempting this 
method is very doubtful. The mere matter of successfully 
crossing two varieties means Httle. The progeny of this 
cross must be carefully studied and selected for a number 
of years in most cases before anything of real value is 
obtained. 

77. Acclimatization. — The method of improving cot- 
ton by means of acchmatization is probably the least hope- 
ful, especially when the introductions are brought direct 
from remote regions with widely different climatic and 
other conditions. For this reason this method should be 
employed only after a careful study of the environment 
of the original and the proposed new country or locality 
of production. However, results of considerable value 
have been obtained at least partially by means of this 
method. A noteworthy example is the successful produc- 
tion of several varieties of Egyptian cotton in certain 
sections of Arizona, New Mexico, and California. 



CHAPTER VII 
COTTON SOILS AND CLIMA TIC ADAPT A TIONS 

With good management, nearly all types of soil within 
the cotton-belt can be made to produce profitable crops 
of cotton. However, this crop is not grown with equal 
success on all types of soil. The sandy uplands, as a rule, 
produce small yields. The heavy clays often produce a 
large vegetative growth accompanied by a small amount 
of lint. The same thing is often true of bottom-land soils. 
The safest cotton soils are the medium grades of loam. 

The successful production of cotton in the United States 
is limited by climatic conditions to the region south of 
latitude 37 degrees. Attempts to grow cotton north of 
this boundary have, as a rule, failed. 

COTTON SOILS 

78. Soil types. — An attempt to classify the various 
types of soil in the cotton-belt upon which cotton is being 
successfully produced reveals a large number of soil types. 
No attempt is made to give a complete classification of 
these soils. The outHne given on next page includes only 
the more important types as regards their extent and use 
in cotton production. This outline is based upon the work 
of the United States Bureau of Soils. The types are 
grouped in accordance with the soil provinces or regions in 
which they occur. 

67 



68 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



The Principal Cotton Soil Types 



Provinces and Regions 



Coastal Plain Province. 



Types 
Norfolk sand and fine sand. 
Norfolk sandy loam, and fine 

sandy loam. 
Tifton sandy loam. 
Orangeburg sand and fine sand. 
Orangeburg sandy loam and 

fine sandy loam. 
Greenville clay loam, sandy 

loam, gravelly sandy loam 

and loamy sand. 
Ruston fine sandy loam. 
Susquehanna fine sandy loam. 
Houston black clay, loam, and 

clay loam. 
Houston clay. 
Victoria clay, loam, and sandy 

loam. 
, Durant fine sandy loam. 



Piedmont Plateau. 



Cecil clay. 
Cecil clay loam. 
Cecil sandy loam. 
Louisa slate loam, 
loam, and loam. 



fine sandy 



Appalachian Province. 



DeKalb fine sandy loam. 
DeKalb silt loam. 
Fayetteville fine sandy loam. 



Limestone Valleys and Uplands . 



Clarksville gravelly loam. 
Clarksville silt loam. 
Decatur clay loam. 
Hagenstown loam. 



Loessial Region Memphis silt loam. 



COTTON SOILS AND CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS 69 



River Flood Plains Province. 



Great Plains Region. 



Miller fine sandy loam and 

clay loam. 
Trinity clay. 
Sharkey clay. 
Ocklocknee fine sandy loam and 

loam. 
Congaree loam. 
Kalmia fine sandy loam. 
Cahaba fine sandy loam. 

Vernon fine sandy loam, loam, 

and silt loam. 
Crawford stony clay. 
Amarillo loam and silty clay 

loam. 



79. Cotton soils of the Coastal Plain Province. — In 

the cotton-beh the coastal plain province comprises a 
large area of rather flat or gently rolling soil bordering 
the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico from Virginia 
to the mouth of the Rio Grande. The soils of this region 
are predominantly sandy or loamy with limited areas of 
very productive clay. The more important types are 
briefly discussed below. 

The Norfolk soils. — These soils extending from Mr- 
ginia to Texas are extensively used for cotton production. 
They are, in the main, well-drained. In fact, the coarser 
textured soils of this series such as the sand and fine sand 
are excessively drained owing to their loose, incoherent 
nature, and the general lack of organic matter. The 
sandy loam and fine sandy loam of this series are better 
suited to the production of cotton than are the sands, 
owing to the fact that these loams are somewhat richer 
in plant-food. They are also underlain at a depth of 
12 to 20 inches with a sandy clay subsoil, which renders 
them less droughty than the sands. 



70 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

The yields of cotton are low on the Norfolk soils, rang- 
ing from one-fourth to one-half bale to the acre. The 
most urgent need of these soils is organic matter. In 
addition, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers are often nec- 
essary for best results. 

Tifton sandy loam. — This type represents a rather 
important cotton soil located in southern Georgia and 
probably in the panhandle of Florida and in southern 
Alabama. It is described as a "gray or yellowish-gray 
medium sandy loam about 10 inches in depth." Drainage 
is usually good and the yields of cotton are considerably 
higher than on the associated Norfolk soils. 

The Orangeburg soils. — In this series the surface soils 
are gray or brownish in color. They are underlain 
by a characteristic red sandy clay or stiff clay subsoil 
which distinguishes them from the Norfolk soils. The 
Orangeburg sandy loam and fine sandy loam are exten- 
sively and successfully used for cotton, especially in cen- 
tral South Carolina, the upper coastal plain of Georgia 
and through the coastal plain of Alabama and Mississippi. 
They also occur in east and northeast Texas. The Orange- 
burg sand and fine sand are fairly important cotton soils in 
these sections, being more productive than the correspond- 
ing types of the Norfolk series, but not so extensive. 

As a rule the surface soils in this series are not retentive 
of water, but the clay subsoils, in a measure, counteract 
this defect. The most urgent needs of these soils are: 
(1) organic matter, (2) deeper plowing, and (3) the preven- 
tion of erosion. 

The Greenville series. — The soils of this series are gen- 
erally loamy, of reddish-brown to dark-red color, and are 
underlain by a "red friable sandy clay subsoil." They 
are admirably adapted to cotton, being more retentive of 



COTTON SOILS AND CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS 71 

moisture than the Orangeburg and Norfolk soils. With 
proper mangement, yields of from three-fourths to one- 
and-a-half bales to the acre are easily obtained, especially 
on the sandy loam and clay loam types. 

The Greenville soils occur in southwest Georgia and 
in the coastal plain region of Alabama. There are also 
some fairly important areas in portions of Louisiana and 
northeastern Texas. 

Ruston fine sandy loam. — This is a rather extensive 
cotton soil, being rather abundant in the coastal plain 
region of Mississippi and Alabama. It is a "light gray 
or yellowish-gray fine sandy loam of variable depth, but 
averaging about 20 inches." The subsoil is a sandy clay 
intermediate in color between that of the Norfolk and 
Orangeburg soils. This soil is inclined to be droughty 
and cotton yields diminish unless extreme care is exercised 
to prevent the waste of soil moisture. 

Susquehanna fine sandy loam. — • This type comprises 
an immense area in east Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, 
and Alabama. The soil is a "gray to brown fine sand or 
hght fine sandy loam about 12 inches deep, resting upon a 
red or yellowish-red clay which is usually stiff and plastic." 
Cotton gives only moderate yields on this type. The 
prevention of erosion and addition of organic matter are 
the most urgent needs of this soil. 

The Houston soils. — This series comprises very valuable 
cotton soils embracing rather large areas in Texas, Ala- 
bama, and Mississippi. The Houston black clay consti- 
tutes what is known as the "black waxy belt" of north and 
central Texas. It is found to a limited extent in central 
Alabama and northeastern Mississippi. This type of soil 
produces more bales of cotton than any other single type in 
the United States. The average yield is about one-half 



72 ' FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

bale to the acre. When in a condition of moderate mois- 
ture and well tilled, the soil is friable, but it becomes ex- 
ceedingly waxy and sticky when wet. This is more or less 
characteristic of all the Houston soils. The subsoil is a 
tight clay of variegated color. The most urgent need of 
the Houston soils is crop rotation. It is probably true 
that on no other group of soils in the South have cropping 
systems been so universally abused. 

Victoria soils. — The soils of this series are closely re- 
lated to the Houston soils. They '^consist of brown to 
black soils with gray to whitish, calcareous subsoils derived 
from Pleistocene deposits of the Gulf Coastal Plains." 
The Victoria loam and clay produce excellent yields of 
cotton when properly tilled. These soils are rathei; exten- 
sive in south Texas. 

Durant fine sandy loam. — This is an important cotton 
soil in north central Texas and southern Oklahoma. It 
is 14 to 18 inches deep and of chocolate brown color. 
Cotton gives only fair yields as ordinarily managed, but 
the soil responds well to good treatment. 

80. Cotton soils of the Piedmont Plateau. — That 
part of the Piedmont Plateau lying within the cotton- 
belt comprises central North Carolina, western South 
Carolina, northern Georgia, and a portion of east central 
Alabama. The topography is rolling to hilly. The soils 
of this region are residual, being formed in place by the 
decay of the underlying rocks. The more important 
cotton soils of this region are briefly described below: 

The Cecil soils. — The most extensively used cotton 
soil in this series is the Cecil sandy loam. It is a rather 
light soil but is underlain by a red clay subsoil. 

The Cecil clay and clay loam, which are closely related, 
are also rather extensively used for cotton. The clay is 



COTTON SOILS AND CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS 73 

composed of a reddish clay loam to a depth of 2 to 6 inches, 
underlain by a heavy red clay subsoil. The clay loam is 
reddish-brown to a depth of 6 to 12 inches, underlain by 
a red clay loam and clay subsoil. 

The Cecil soils require liberal applications of vegetable 
matter and to a less extent lime, in order to be made pro- 
ductive. . 

The Louisa series. — The soils of this series consist of 
light brown or pale yellow friable loams, ranging in depth 
from 5 to 8 inches. The subsoils are pale yellow loams, 
often grading into a red clay. The yields of cotton are 
usually low. In dry years crops suffer from lack of mois- 
ture. It is often difficult to maintain these soils in good 
structural condition, owing to their inclination to run 
together or bake. 

81. Cotton soils of the Appalachian Province. — This 
province is not extensive in the cotton-belt. It comprises 
part of Tennessee, northwest Georgia, northern Alabama, 
and the Ozark region of Arkansas. Soils of the DeKalb 
series and the Fayetteville fine sandy loam are the im- 
portant cotton soils of this region. 

The DeKalb soils. — The two important cotton soils 
of this series are the DeKalb fine sandy loam and silt loam. 
The former is a fine, compact sandy loam ranging in depth 
from 8 to 12 inches and underlain by a very loose loamy 
subsoil. The latter soil is not so compact and the subsoil 
is a friable silt-clay loam. Commercial fertilizers are 
necessary on both types in order to secure good yields of 
cotton. These soils occur in that portion of the province 
found in Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. 

The Fayetteville jine sandy loam. — This is the important 
cotton soil of the Ozark region of Arkansas. It is 8 to 12 
inches deep, of a reddish-gray color, and underlain by a 



74 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

sandy clay subsoil of similar color. Drainage is generally 
good and fair yields of cotton are secured. 

82. Cotton soils of the limestone valleys and uplands. — 
In so far as the cotton-belt is concerned this region is con- 
fined to northwestern Georgia, northern Alabama, and 
Tennessee. The Clarksville silt loam and gravelly loam 
are the principal upland cotton soils, while the Decatur 
clay loam and Hagerstown loam are the chief valley soils 
for cotton. These soils have been derived very largely 
from the decay of underlying limestones and dolomitic 
limestones. 

The Clarksville soils. — The only important cotton soils 
of this series are the Clarksville gravelly loam and silt 
loam. These soils give fair yields of cotton when properly 
managed. The gravelly loam is probably the better for 
this crop. The silt loam is more droughty and is looked 
upon as a rather weak soil. The more level areas are 
poorly drained. 

The Decatur clay loam is a more productive soil than 
either of the Clarksville types described. The surface 
soil is 8 to 12 inches deep and ranges in color from a brown 
to reddish brown. The subsoil is a reddish brown to red 
clay. With good management, profitable crops of cotton 
are easily produced on this soil. 

The Hagerstown loam, occurring in both Alabama and 
Tennessee is one of the best cotton soils of this region. 
"The soil is a brown yellow loam averaging about 12 
inches in depth. The subsoil is a yellow or reddish clay 
loam to a depth of 24 inches." 

83. Cotton soils of the Loessial region. — The Loessial 
region comprises an important area of silty deposits formed 
by water or wind during or following the glacial period. In 
the cotton-belt it occupies a rather broad belt extending 



COTTON SOILS AND CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS 75 

from southwestern Tennessee across the entire western 
border of Mississippi into Louisiana. 

The Memjikis silt loam is the principal cotton soil of the 
Loessial region. The top soil is about 8 inches deep and 
powdery when dry. The subsoil is a "yellowish-brown 
or reddish-yellow compact heavy silt loam or silty clay 
loam." As this soil occupies uplands, it is subject to 
serious erosion. It produces good yields of cotton. 

84. Cotton soils of the River Flood Plains Province. — 
The soils of this province occupy the present flood plains 
or "first bottoms" and also the old flood plains or "second 
bottoms ".of streams of that portion of the United States 
lying east of the Great Plains Region. These soils are 
composed of alluvial deposits washed from the uplands 
and deposited by overflow waters. In general, the soils 
of this province are very fertile where properly drained. 
The most huportant cotton soils of this group are briefly 
described below. 

The Miller fine sandy loam and clay are important cotton 
soils found in the valleys of those rivers which rise in the 
Permian Red Beds such as the Brazos, Arkansas, and Red 
Rivers. They represent the wash from these Red Beds. 
The fine sandy loam is grayish broA\Tn. or reddish in color 
and is 12 to 24 inches deep. It is well drained and is an 
excellent cotton soil. The miller clay to a depth of 10 
inches is brownish red or chocolate colored. The subsoil 
is very stiff and tenacious. This soil represents the finest 
materials brought down from the Permian Red Beds and 
constitutes a strong cotton soil. 

The Trinity day is a productive cotton soil occupying 
rather level bottoms along the streams "in and issuing 
from the calcareous prairies of the Gulf Coastal Plain." 
This soil is easily puddled if worked while wet. Good 



76 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

drainage is an essential to the profitable production of 
cotton on this soil. 

The Sharkey clay found in certain river bottoms of Texas, 
Louisiana, Mississippi, and Missouri, and locally known 
as "buck shot land" is a valuable cotton soil when well 
drained. It is very stiff and waxy. Drainage and organic 
matter are its most urgent needs. Other important cotton 
soils belonging to this province are the Ocklocknee fine 
sandy loam, occupying level or gently sloping bottoms 
in Alabama and Mississippi, the Congaree loam, occupying 
the bottoms of streams flowing through or rising in the 
Piedmont Plateau, and the Kalmia and Cahaba fine sandy 
loams found on second bottoms along streams of the 
Coastal Plain. 

85. Cotton soils of the Great Plains region. — In so 
far as the cotton-belt is concerned this region comprises 
western Oklahoma and western Texas. The greater 
portion of the soils occupying this area are residual. 
Climatic conditions often prohibit the successful produc- 
tion of cotton throughout a large part of this region. 

The principal cotton soils of the Great Plains Region 
are the Vernon soils, comprising the fine sandy loam, loam, 
and silt loam, occupying the Red Beds region lying to the 
east of the Staked plains; also the Crawford stony clay, 
lying to the east and south of the Vernon soils, and the 
Amarillo loam and silty clay loam of the staked plains 
region. These soils are quite productive when the moisture 
supply is abundant. 

CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS 

While cotton is a rather sensitive plant, it is affected 
less by ordinary changes in the weather than other field 
crops. Owing to its long growing season, it readily recovers 



COTTON SOILS AND CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS 77 

from minor setbacks. Nevertheless, such important cli- 
matic factors as the length of the growing season, tem- 
perature, sunshine, and the amount and distribution of 
the rainfall are directly related to the normal growth and 
fruiting of cotton. 

86. Length of growing season. — The time required 
for the full development of cotton is 190 to 200 days from 
planting to harvest. In fact, the maximum yields are 
produced in sections where the growing season exceeds 
200 days. By examining Fig. 16, it will be noticed that the 
length of the growing season in different portions of the 
cotton-belt varies from 190 to 200 days in the northern- 
most part to 300 days in the extreme southern hmit. The 
present tendency is to develop early maturing cottons to 
avoid the injury from the boll-weevil. 

87. Amount and distribution of the rainfall. — Pre- 
cipitation is a very prominent factor in the development 
of the cotton plant. During April, at which time the 
greater portion of the cotton crop is planted, hght but 
frequent showers are desired. The presence of excessive 
moisture in the soil at this time causes the seed to decay 
rather than germinate. On the other hand, an abundance 
of capillary water must be present or the seedlings will 
not secm-e the proper nourishment, the soil will bake, 
and a poor stand will result. 

If the seed-bed for cotton has been properly prepared, 
thus insuring the presence of a rather large amount of 
available water in the soil at planting time, light but well 
' distributed showers during the months of April, May, and 
June give best result. This permits the roots to sink deep 
into the soil, enabling the plants to better withstand the 
dry periods of late summer. A wet spring causes the rapid 
development of surface roots to the sacrifice of the deeper 



78 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 




COTTON SOILS AND CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS 79 

roots. This abnormal development causes the plants 
to wilt rapidly and shed their foliage and fruit during 
the droughty conditions which so often prevail in late 
summer. 

Experience has shown that if April, May, and June 
have been favorable, cotton can withstand considerable 
rain during the period from the middle of July to the 
middle of August. Excessive rain during the latter period 
of growth and maturity induces a rank growth of weed 
to the detriment of the fruit. 

88. Temperature and sunshine. — In considering the 
influence of temperature and sunshine upon the develop- 
ment of cotton one must divide the life -history of the 
plant into two periods. The first is that in which the 
plant is in full vegetative growth, extending from 
planting time until about the first or middle of Au- 
gust. The second period is that in which the vegeta- 
tive growth is checked, the plant diverting its energies 
to the production of fruit from the previously stored 
material. 

During the first period the mean daily temperatures 
increase rapidly. Throughout the greater part of this 
period cotton requires a very warm or even hot atmos- 
phere, provided there is sufficient humidity in the atmos- 
phere to prevent excessive transpiration. It is also de- 
sirable that the daily range in temperature should be 
uniform during this first period; otherwise the vegetative 
growth is likely to be checked. 

In the second period the temperature decreases rapidly 
and there is usually a greater range of temperature be- 
tween day and night. This is very favorable to the 
maturing crop as it serves to check the vegetative growth 
and induce fruiting. It is highly important that the 



80 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

plants 'receive an abundance of sunshine during June and 
a part of July, As a rule the first blooms begin to appear 
early in June, and the plants bloom rapidly until the 
middle of July. It is at this stage that very little rain and 
plenty of sunshine are required. 



CHAPTER VIII 

FERTILIZERS, MANURES AND ROTATIONS FOR 
COTTON 

The problem of niaintaining permanently the produc- 
ing power of the soils in the cotton-belt involves, (1) such 
a system of cropping as will provide these soils with an 
abundance of organic matter and nitrogen, and (2) the 
application of the two important plant-food materials, 
— phosphoric acid and potash, — to those soils in which 
these constituents are more or less deficient. In general, 
the cotton farmer has neglected the first of these practices 
and has greatly abused the second. In fact, he has learned 
to rely, almost entirely, upon commercial fertilizers to 
supply the nitrogen as well as the mineral foods where these 
constituents are deficient. 

The fact that soils have rapidly decreased in productive- 
ness following the continuous production of cotton has 
led most cotton farmers to believe that cotton is a very 
exhaustive crop. From the standpoint of the amount of 
plant-food materials taken out of the soil this is not 
true. 

89. Fertility removed by cotton. — An acre of cotton 
yielding 500 pounds of lint, 1000 pounds of seed and 2000 
pounds of stalks will remove from the soil approximately 
the following amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash: 

81 



82 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Table 5. Showing Plant-food Removed by Cotton 





Nitrogen 

(Pounds) 


Phosphoric 
Acid 

(Pounds) 


Potash 

(Pounds) 


Lint, 500 pounds 

Seed, 1000 pounds 

Stalks, 2000 pounds .... 


1.5 
31.5 
51.0 


0.5 
12.6 
20.0 


2.4 
11.5 
36.2 


Total Crop 


84.0 


33.1 


50.1 



The cotton plant requires much more nitrogen than 
either phosphoric acid or potash. Of the total nitrogen re- 
quired, approximately 98 per cent is in the stalks and seed 
and only 2 per cent in the lint. Approximately 99 per cent 
of the phosphoric acid and 95 per cent of the potash is in 
the stalks and seed. When it is remembered that in ordi- 
nary farm practice the stalks are returned to the soil and in 
some cases the seed used as a fertilizer, or its equivalent in 
cotton -seed meal purchased and returned to the" soil, the 
fact becomes clear that the cotton crop does not remove ex- 
cessive amounts of plant-food as compared with other field 
crops. The gradual decline in the organic content of the soil, 
the leaching and erosion during the winter months, and 
the poor physical condition of the soil, all of which result 
from the continuous cultivation of cotton, are the primary 
reasons why cotton soils become poor. 

90. Maintenance of fertility. — The ideal practice 
is to return to the soil, either directly or in farm manure, 
all plant-food not sold from the farm. However, sound 
fertilizer practice does not mean that the plant-food 
constituents must be purchased and returned to the soil 
in the proportions in which they are removed by crops. 
Many clay soils contain large quantities of potash. Here 



FERTILIZERS, ROTATIONS FOR COTTON 83 

the problem is to render this natural supply of potash 
available to crops by good soil management, rather than 
to depend upon potassic fertilizers. On the other hand, 
there are extensive areas of soils, especially those of an 
extremely sandy nature, that are very deficient in plant- 
food. The plant-food materials should be returned to 
these soils in amounts exceeding those in which they are 
removed by crops, as there is considerable loss of these 
materials as a result of leaching and erosion. 

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS FOR COTTON 

91. Nitrogen-supplying fertilizers. — The two fertiliz- 
ing materials supplying the greater part of the purchased 
nitrogen for cotton soils are cotton-seed meal and sodium 
nitrate. Other materials of secondary importance are 
ammonium sulfate, dried blood, tankage, and cotton seed. 
An important factor in determining which of the above 
materials the cotton grower should buy is the relative 
cost of the element nitrogen. In fact, the farmer should 
secure the greater part of his nitrogen through the growth 
of legumes and the production and use of farm manures. 

92. Sodium nitrate versus cotton-seed meal. — Ex- 
periments and farm experience have shown that on most 
soils, when the materials are properly applied, a pound of 
nitrogen will give equally good results when applied to 
cotton in either sodium nitrate or cotton-seed meal. As 
the form in which the nitrogen is contained differs in these 
two fertilizers, correct practices as regards their applica- 
tion differ somewhat." Sodium nitrate contains its nitro- 
gen in the form of a soluble inorganic salt and for this 
reason it is a quick acting fertilizer. It is not absorbed by 
the soil in large quantities and is easily lost in the drainage 
water. The nitrogen in cotton-seed meal is combined with 



84 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



other elements to form organic material. It does not 
become available to the plant until the cotton-seed meal 
has undergone decomposition, which results in the trans- 
formation of the organic nitrogen into nitrate nitrogen. 
For this reason cotton-seed meal acts less quickly than 
sodium nitrate. It is not so easily lost in the drainage 
water owing to the fact that it is readily absorbed by soils. 

For the reasons just stated, sodium nitrate should not 
be appHed in large quantities to cotton soils before or 
even at the time of planting. It should be appKed in mod- 
erate quantity (50-100 pounds to the acre) while the crop 
is growing upon the soil. Cotton-seed meal is best applied 
a short while before or at the time of planting. 

93. Cotton seed versus cotton-seed meal. — As to 
whether the farmer should use cotton seed or cotton-seed 
meal as a source of nitrogen will depend primarily upon 
the market prices of these products. With prices that have 
prevailed in past years the farmer can ill afford to use his 
seed for fertilizing purposes owing to the fact that the 
market value of the seed greatly exceeds its fertilizing 
value. « 

The following table will give at once a clear idea as to the 
relative value of meal and seed for fertilizer: 



Table 6. Showing Fertilizing Constituents in Cotton Seed 
AND Cotton-seed Meal 





Cotton Seed 


Cotton-seed Meal 




Per Cent 


(Pounds 
to a Ton) 


Per Cent 


(Pounds 
TO A Ton) 


Nitrogen 


3.1 
1.3 
1.2 


■ 62 

26 

. 24 


7.0 
2.5 
1.5 


140 


Phosphoric Acid . . . 
Potash 


50 ■ 
30 



FERTILIZERS, ROTATIONS FOR COTTON 85 

In so far as the plant-food constituents determine the 
fcrtiUzing value of these two materials, cotton-seed meal 
is worth a little more than twice as much as cotton seed. 
Duggar ^ states that "the average of a number of exper- 
iments on many soils in Alabama showed that, as a fer- 
tilizer for cotton, one pound of high-grade cotton-seed 
meal was equal the first year to 2^\ pounds of crushed 
cotton seed. Later experiments in Alabama and Georgia 
make a still more favorable showing for the meal." The 
nitrogen in cotton seed becomes available more slowly 
than that in cotton-seed meal, owing to the high oil con- 
tent of the seed, which retards decomposition. For this 
reason, cotton seed usually exerts a greater influence the 
second year after its application than does the meal. 

While the above consideration gives the preference to 
cotton-seed meal as a fertilizer, it must be remembered 
that it costs the farmer something to sell his seed and buy 
meal or to exchange his seed for meal. If, as we have seen, 
1000 pounds of cotton-seed meal is of equal fertilizing 
value to 2000 pounds of seed, in order to make an even 
exchange of seed for meal, the farmer must get enough 
meal in addition to the 1000 pounds to pay the expense 
of making the exchange. 

When cotton seed are used as a fertilizer for cotton, a 
common practice is to apply them in the drill in mid- 
winter. This prevents the seed from growing. If applied 
late they should first be crushed or their vitality destroyed 
by composting or by wetting and subsequently allowing 
them to heat. 

94. Need of cotton soils for nitrogen. — The sandy 
and sandy loam soils of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal 
Plain comprise a large percentage of the area devoted to 
1 Duggar, J. F., " Southern Field Crops," p. 326. 



86 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

cotton in the United States. These soils are extremely 
deficient in both organic matter and nitrogen. There are 
at least three important reasons for this. (1) The cropping 
systems have been such as to return very little organic 
matter and nitrogen. (2) The open, porous character of 
these soils hastens the oxidation and destruction of what- 
ever vegetable matter is applied. (3) The abundant rain- 
fall of the region together with the porous nature of the 
soils causes the soluble nitrogen to leach away rapidly. 
The same conditions also cause much loss of nitrogen on 
account of erosion. 

This deficiency of nitrogen is also noticeable on much 
of the clay soils in the cotton-belt. Most of the Houston 
black clay of north and central Texas, central Alabama, 
and northeastern Mississippi, has continuously been 
cropped to cotton until it is nitrogen hungry. Green- 
manure crops rather than commercial fertilizers should 
be employed to restore this nitrogen. 

95. Phosphatic fertilizers. — Acid phosphate is the 
material most universally used by cotton growers as a 
source of phosphoric acid. Other materials of secondary 
importance are raw rock phosphate, ground bone, and 
slag phosphate. 

Acid phosphate. — This is a manufactured product 
made by treating ground raw rock phosphate, Ca3(P04)2 
with an equal weight of sulfuric acid, (H2SO4). This 
results in the replacement of part of the phosphoric acid 
by sulfuric acid, thus forming monocalcium phosphate, 
CaH4(P04)2, and calcium sulfate, CaS04 as the chief 
constituents: 

CasCPOi)^ plus 2 H2SO4 equals CaH4(P04)2 plus 2 CaS04. 

Phosphoric acid in the form of tricalcium phosphate is 



FERTILIZERS, ROTATIONS FOR COTTON 87 

insoluble, whereas that in monocalcium phosphate is 
easily soluble and therefore available to plants. The object 
of the sulfuric acid treatment, therefore, is to render the 
phosphoric acid soluble. Acid phosphate is also made by- 
treating ground bone with sulfuric acid. Ordinarily acid 
phosphate contains from 12 to 16 per cent of soluble 
phosphoric acid. As a rule, about one-fourth of acid phos- 
phate consists of phosphates (chiefly monocalcium phos- 
phate) while three-fourths consists of calcium sulfate and 
impurities. The calcium sulfate is a soil stimulant and no 
doubt, in many cases, the effects produced from applying 
acid phosphate are partially due to the action of calcium 
sulfate in making soluble certain mineral elements of plant- 
food in the soil. The principal reason why acid phosphate 
is so universally used by cotton growers is that it gives 
quick results due to the readily soluble form in which the 
phosphoric acid is contained. 

Raw rock phosphate. — This material is used very little 
by cotton growers. It consists of the finely ground phos- 
phate rock without any acid treatment. Consequently 
the phosphoric acid contained is very difficultly soluble. 
On soils that are devoid of organic matter it produces 
practically no results. However, experiments that have 
been conducted at the IlUnois, Ohio, Pennsylvania and 
Maryland Experiment Stations, indicate that on soils well 
provided with decaying organic matter, raw rock phos- 
phate is a very profitable source of phosphoric acid. The 
organic acids produced as by-products in the decomposi- 
tion of the organic matter act upon the raw rock phosphate 
changing a part of the phosphoric acid into an available 
form. In the event that future investigations establish 
the fact that raw rock phosphate may be made to mate- 
rially increase the yield of cotton when applied to soils 



88 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

rich in organic matter, it will furnish the cotton farmer 
a very much cheaper source of phosphoric acid than acid 
phosphate. Raw rock phosphate contains from 28 to 30 
per cent of phosphoric acid. 

96. Need of cotton soils for phosphoric acid. — The 
need of phosphatic fertilizers in the production of cotton 
is almost universal on the Norfolk, Orangeburg, and Sus- 
quehanna soils comprising the greater part of the Atlantic 
and Gulf Coastal Plain region. Analyses have shown 
much of these soils to contain less than 200 pounds of 
phosphoric acid to the acre. (For such a calculation the 
depth of the soil is considered to be seven inches.) 

A permanently profitable system of agriculture can 
never be established on these soils without the more or 
less continued use of phosphate fertilizers. The rich 
alluvial soils of the Mississippi River and the Houston 
black clays of Texas, Alabama, and Mississippi, con- 
stitute the most important cotton soils that are not at 
present considered to be in need of phosphatic fertilizers. 

Experience has taught that practically all of the sands 
and sandy loam soils and much of the upland clays in the 
cotton-belt, except the arid section of west Texas, are 
benefited by the application of phosphates. 

97. Potassic fertilizers. — There are three materials 
that furnish the potash in cotton fertilizers. These are 
kainit, muriate of potash, and sulfate of potash. Of these 
three, kainit is most largely used. Experiments have not 
shown that a pound of potash in kainit, when applied to 
cotton, is more effective than an equal amount in muriate 
or sulfate of potash. The farmer should buy the material 
in which he can get the potash cheapest. 

Kainit is a low-grade material containing approxi- 
mately 12 per cent of potash, largely in the form of sulfate. 



FERTILIZERS, ROTATIONS FOR COTTON 89 

It also contains considerable quantities of magnesium 
sulfate and magnesium chloride. It is highly probable 
that part of the effect produced from adding kainit is due 
to the stimulating effects of these magnesium salts. 

IVIuriate of potash and sulfate of potash are high-grade 
materials containing approximately 50 per cent of actual 
potash. For this reason it often happens that potash can 
be purchased cheaper in these materials than in kainit 
because of the decreased freight rate a unit of potash 
secured. All of these potash fertilizers have been secured 
from extensive salt deposits in the region of the Harz 
Mountains in northern Germany. 

98. Need of cotton soils for potash. — Soils of the 
cotton-belt are in less need of potassic fertilizers than of 
phosphatic or nitrogenous materials. The principal rea- 
sons for this are: (1) these soils, in general, contain larger 
natural supplies of potash than of nitrogen or phosphoric 
acid; and (2) in ordinary farm practice the stalks of cotton, 
corn, and the like which contain most of the potash 
taken up by the crop are more often returned to the soil 
than the seed or seed products, which contain most of 
the nitrogen and phosphoric acid. 

The sandy soils antl often the sandy loams are usually 
deficient in potash and consequently respond profitably 
to potassic fertilizers. Clay soils, owing to the fact that 
they have been produced largely from the weathering of 
potassic feldspars are usually rich in potash. 

99. Potash fertilizers check rust. — Experience has 
shown that potash fertilizers often greatly decrease the 
injury produced by cotton rust. As to whether this is 
due to a fungicidal action of the potash or whether it 
mei-ely gives the cotton plants greater power of rust- 
resistance is not known. It seems to help the plants to 



90 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

remain green and thrifty through periods of drouth. 
Duggar suggests that potash probably reduces the amount 
of water necessary to keep the plants in health.^ 

100. A fertilizer test for cotton. — Soils differ in their 
requirements for fertilizers even when growing the same 
crop for two important reasons. (1) The natural plant- 
food content of soils is very variable. (2) The past treat- 
ment of a soil is important in determining its fertilizer 
needs. The continuous growth of one crop may exhaust 
one plant-food element more rapidly than others. For the 
above reasons the farmer should make tests of different 
fertilizing mixtures with the view of determining those 
most profitable for his particular soil. The soil on which 
this test is conducted should be level, of uniform pro- 
ductiveness, and representative of the soil type upon 
which the general crop of cotton is to be grown. A con- 
venient and satisfactory size of plot for each fertilizer 
treatment is one-tenth of an acre. Eight rows, 136 feet 
long and 4 feet apart, represent an area of approximately 
one-tenth acre. In order that the adjacent conditions 
of all plots be similar, the various plots should be sep- 
arated from each other by an unfertilized row of cotton, 
known as the "guard row." To one making this test 
the following treatment of the various plots is recom- 
mended, it being assumed that the plots are of the size 
recommended above: 

Plot 2 1. No fertilizer. 

Plot 2. 20 pounds of cotton-seed meal. 

Plot 3. 20 pounds of 14 per cent acid phosphate. 

Plot 4. 8 pounds of kainit. 

1 J. F. Duggar, "Southern Field Crops," p. 333. 

2 The term "plot" in this outline has reference to 8 rows, 136 feet 
long and 4 feet apart. 



FERTILIZERS, ROTATIONS FOR COTTON 91 

Plot 5. No fertilizer. 

Plot 6. 20 pounds each of acid phosphate and cotton-seed meal. 

Plot 7. 20 pounds of cotton-seed meal and 8 pounds of kainit. 

Plot 8. 20 pounds of acid phosphate and 8 pounds of kainit. 

Plot 9. 20 pounds each of acid phosphate and cotton-seed meal and 

8 pounds of kainit. 

Plot 10. No fertihzer. 

When the cotton is well up it should be thinned, special 
care being exercised to see that the stand is uniform for 
all plots; otherwise the results will not be comparable. 
Likewise the cultivation and in fact all treatment except 
the fertilizer treatment should be the same for all plots. 
At harvest time the seed cotton from each plot should be 
carefully weighed. By comparing the yield of each ferti- 
lized plot with that from the nearest unfertihzed plot one 
can determine the effectiveness of the various treatments. 
A test of this nature should be repeated for several years 
as it is known that seasonal conditions influence somewhat 
the action of fertilizers. 

101. Judging fertilizer needs by appearance of 
plants. — In general, a rank growth of stalks and leaves 
associated with a rich green color indicate an abundance 
of nitrogen in the soil. On the other hand, small growth 
and pale color are not necessarily indicative of nitrogen 
starvation as any kind of malnutrition will produce imper- 
fect growth. It is thought that phosphoric acid is closely 
associated with the fruiting process and that poorly 
fruited plants indicate a deficiency of phosphorus. While 
these indications are often correct, they do not constitute 
a safe criterion of fertilizer needs. It is not possible to 
give accurate directions whereby one can tell from the 
appearance of the crop what plant-food is lacking in the 
soil. 



92 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

102. Home-mixing fertilizers. — The farmer who 
makes a practice of purchasing ready-mixed fertilizers 
usually pays more for the plant-foods secured than would 
have been the case had he purchased the incomplete 
materials and mixed them at home. The most economical 
use of fertilizers is possible only when a fertilizer test is 
made and the materials bought, mixed, and applied in 
accordance with the needs of the soil as indicated by this 
test. To assume that any particular brand of fertilizer 
is universally best for cotton is also an assumption that 
all cotton soils are alike as regards their fertilizer needs 
— an assumption that is grossly absurd. 

103. Time of applying fertilizers. — Such fertilizing 
materials as acid phosphate, cotton-seed meal, dried 
blood, tankage, and the potash fertilizers should be ap- 
plied either a short while before or at the time of planting. 
Phosphoric acid is readily fixed in the soil. There is little 
danger from leaching as it becomes well distributed in the 
soil and soon changes to insoluble forms. The organic ni- 
trogenous fertilizers all have to be oxidized and converted 
into nitrates before they are of value to the crop. Potash 
is very quickly fixed in the soil by the double silicates. 
As a result of these properties of the above materials, 
experiments have shown no material gains from the prac- 
tice of postponing the application of the fertilizers until 
the crop is up and growing. However, where very heavy 
applications are to be made, better results are usually 
secured by saving a part of the fertilizer for intercultural 
applications. 

If nitrate of soda is to be used, it should be applied after 
the plants have begun growth. 

104. Methods of applying fertilizers. — When fer- 
tilizers are applied to cotton in amounts less than 400 



FERTILIZERS, ROTATIONS FOR COTTON 93 

pounds to the acre, they arc usually drilled in. Larger 
applications may be applied broadcast or partly broad- 
cast and partly in the drill. 

There are three methods of drilling fertilizers for cotton : 
(1) by hand distribution; (2) by the use of a fertilizer 
distributor; (3) by the use of a combined fertilizer distribu- 
tor and planter. In drilling fertilizers by any of the above 
methods, one should be careful to see that such materials 
as cotton-seed meal and the potash fertilizers arc not 
allowed to come in direct contact with the seed, as this 
is likely to interfere with germination. When fertilizers 
are distributed by hand, a small shovel plow or other 
suitable implement should be run in the drill to mix the 
fertilizer with the soil. In sections where the practice is 
to ridge the soil for cotton, the fertilizers are first distrib- 
uted in the drill and the ridge subsequently formed im- 
mediately over the fertilizer. The ridge is then partially 
harrowed down and the seed planted, preferably by means 
of a planter, directly over the fertilizer. The fertilizer 
distributors usually cover the fertilizer sufficiently to 
protect the seed. When fertilizers are broadcast they 
should be thoroughly harrowed into the soil before the 
crop is planted. 

In case nitrate of soda is to be applied during the grow- 
ing season, it should be distributed uniformly in the mid- 
dles and worked in with a cultivator. 

105. Fertilizer formulas for cotton. — Owing to the 
varying needs of cotton soils for fertilizers one can 
only generalize in giving fertilizer formulas for this 
crop. The few formulas given below are to be used 
merely as guides. They are not to be adhered to 
strictly. 

The following formula is recommended by Halligan for 



'94 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON -BELT 

"Louisiana and other parts of the South where the soil 
is rich in available potash:" 

150-200 pounds cotton-seed meal | , , . 
150-200 pounds acid phosphate j 

The Georgia Experiment Station recommends the follow- 
ing fertilizer for cotton on old, worn uplands: 

Acid phosphate 1000 pounds 1 

Cotton-seed meal 671 pounds \ 400 to 800 pounds to the acre. 

Kainit 296 pounds J 

For the sandy soils of east Texas, the Texas Experiment 
Station recommends the following fertilizer : 

100 pounds of 16 per cent acid phosphate 1 , 
200 pounds of cotton-seed meal J 

On extremely sandy soils, from 50 to 75 pounds of muriate 
of potash or 200 pounds of kainit should be added to the 
fertilizer mixture. 

FARM MANURES FOR COTTON 

The cotton farmer, as a rule, uses very little farm 
manure. The chief reason for this is that on the average 
cotton farm, very little stock is kept other than the work 
stock necessary to produce the cotton. The limited supply 
of manure produced is often allowed to go to waste or is so 
improperly managed as to be of very inferior quality, 

106. Stable manure for cotton. — Notwithstanding 
the limited use of stable manure by cotton-growers, farm 
experience and experiments have rendered unquestionable 
the high value of this material when used in connection 
with proper systems of cotton production. It lends itself 
most readily to those systems in which cotton is produced 
in rotation with other crops. In such cases the manure 



FERTILIZERS, ROTATIONS FOR COTTON 95 

usually is applied to some crop in the rotation other than 
cotton, preferably corn, thus allowing the cotton crop to 
get the residual effect of the manure. The direct applica- 
tion of the manure to the cotton often extends the grow- 
ing season of the plants, delays maturity and hence de- 
creases the possible yield and profit, especially in sections 
subject to the ravages of the boll-weevil. In case it is 
necessary to apply the manure directly to the cotton crop, 
the application should be made in the fall preceding the 
growth of the crop and should be immediately plowed 
under. This is especially important on clay soils, as de- 
composition takes place slowly in heavy soils and the 
constituents of the fresh manure become available slowly. 
As the clays possess very powerful absorptive properties, 
the value of the manure will not be lost as a result of its 
early application. In sandy soils, on the other hand, 
unless the season is dry, the conditions are such that the 
manure decomposes readily, and there is greater danger 
that some of the soluble constituents will be carried away 
in the drainage water. 

Stable manure is usually broadcast at the rate of 6 to 
12 tons to the acre. Heavy applications generally return 
greater profits to the acre of land while light applications 
give larger profits to the ton of manure applied. 

107. Composts for cotton. — During the period from 
1870 to 1880 composts received considerable attention as a 
fertiHzer for cotton. Within recent years, their use for this 
purpose has decreased as it has been found that, in many 
cases, the improvement is not sufficient to compensate 
for the trouble and cost of making them. 

The increased interest manifested in compost by cotton 
farmers during the period from 1870 to 1880 was due 
largely to the writings of Parish Furman, of Baldwin 



96 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

County, Georgia. Furman recommended the composting 
of such nitrogenous materials as cotton seed and barnyard 
manure with acid phosphate and kainit for the purpose of 
providing a "complete fertilizer" at a lower price than 
that which was being paid for the ammoniated guanos 
so extensively used at that time. Furman's formula, as 
originally recommended was as follows: 

Barnyard manure 750 pounds 

Cotton seed 750 pounds 

Acid phosphate 367 pounds 

Kainit 133 pounds 

In addition to the above materials, farmers often added 
considerable absorbent earth. The general plan followed 
in making the compost heap was first to put down a layer 
of 20 to 25 bushels of stable manure, and to cover this with 
an equal amount of cotton seed. Next, 200 pounds of 
acid phosphate was applied and occasionally kainit was 
added to the mixture. Absorbent earth was used at fre- 
quent intervals in sufficient amounts to cover the entire 
heap. 

The benefits derived from adding the acid phosphate 
were: (1) it supplied the deficiency of phosphoric acid in 
composts; and (2) it added calcium sulfate (an important 
constituent of acid phosphate), which prevents the loss of 
ammonia during fermentation. The absorbent earth also 
prevented the loss of ammonia. 

A few days before, or at the time of planting, the com- 
post is thoroughly mixed and applied in the drill at the 
rate of 400 to 800 pounds to the acre. 

GREEN-MANURES AND ROTATIONS FOR COTTON 

108. Need of organic matter. — The most profitable 
use of commercial fertilizers in the production of cotton is 



FERTILIZERS, ROTATIONS FOR COTTON 97 

possible only when an adequate supply of organic matter 
is maintained in the soil. No greater error can be made 
by the cotton-grower than that of depending upon commer- 
cial fertilizers to overcome the ill effects produced by a 
deficiency of vegetable matter, poor tillage, and lack of 
drainage. In this connection it is well to remember, (1) 
that the primary function of commercial fertilizers is to 
add plant-food to the soil, and (2) that plant-food is only 
one of the several factors essential to the profitable produc- 
tion of crops. 

The ability of the crop to obtain plant-food and moisture 
from the soil, and also profitably to utilize the nutrients 
suppHed in fertilizers is determined largely by the physical 
condition of the soil, and the solvent power of the soil 
water. Decaying vegetable matter produces that physical 
condition necessary for the proper aeration of the soil and 
also supplies by-products which, when dissolved in the 
soil water, greatly increase its solvent power for plant- 
food. As a result of these effects, the organic matter de- 
creases the need for fertilizers in the production of cotton 
on soils that are well supplied with the mineral plant- 
foods and renders much more effective the mineral fer- 
tilizers that are essential on soils in which the mineral 
plant-food naturally is somewhat deficient. The most 
important source of organic matter for soils in the cotton- 
belt is that of green-manures. 

109. Suitable crops for green-manure. — Crops suit- 
able for use as green-manures in the cotton-belt are of two 
classes; legumes and non-legumes. Of the first class, the 
cowpea, soy bean, crimson clover, bur clover, vetch, 
melilotus, and the velvet bean are most important. Be- 
longing to the second class are rye, oats, wheat, barley, 
and millet. 



98 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

110. Green-manures and the supply of organic mat- 
ter. — Ordinarily, cowpeas, soy beans, and crimson 
clover will yield at least 13^2 tons of dry matter to the acre 
in tops and roots. This dry matter when plowed into the 
soil is equivalent to an application of six tons of average 
barnyard manure, containing 25 per cent dry matter and 
75 per cent water. Very few farmers in the cotton-belt 
produce a sufficient amount of barnyard manure to enable 
them to apply six tons of manure to every acre of cul- 
tivated land on their farms once every four years. Prac- 
tically all of them can easily add the equivalent of this 
much manure to their soils once every three or four years 
by the use of green-manures. Whether or not the entire 
crop should be plowed into the soil, or merely the roots 
and stubble, will be determined largely by the needs of the 
soil for organic matter and nitrogen. On soils that are 
quite deficient in organic matter, it will in general be a 
good practice to return the entire crop. Otherwise, the 
crop should be harvested for hay and the manure returned 
to the soil. 

The Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station reports 
an increase in yield in one case of 696 pounds of seed cotton 
to the acre, or 83 per cent, due to plowing under a crop of 
cowpea vines on land which had been in cotton the pre- 
vious season. 

111. Green-manure crops and the nitrogen supply. — 
Nitrogen is the most costly constituent of commercial 
fertilizers, its commercial value usually being more than 
three times that of either phosphoric acid or potash. For 
this reason the farmer should attempt to secure from the 
air (which is "^/s nitrogen) the greatest part of the nitrogen 
needed in the production of his crops by the introduction 
of legumes into his cropping system. 



FERTILIZERS, ROTA TTONS FOR COTTON 99 

A crop of cowpeas yielding 1}/^ tons of hay to the acre 
will, if returned to the soil, increase the nitrogen supply 
supply approximately 65 pounds to the acre. This is 
assuming that the cowpea secures from 40 to 45 pounds 
of nitrogen from the air for each ton of hay it produces, 
the nitrogen contained in the roots and stubble being no 
more than that furnished by the average soil. To add 
this much nitrogen would require 930 pounds of cotton- 
seed meal or 433 pounds of sodium nitrate. In addition, 
the organic matter supplied by the cowpeas is usually of 
greater value than the nitrogen. Similar yields of soy 
beans and crimson clover would supply to an acre, 75 and 
70 pounds of nitrogen, respectively. 

Non-leguminous green-manure crops, such as the small- 
grains, millet, and the like, while not increasing the 
amount of nitrogen in the soil are, nevertheless, nitrogen 
savers, owing to the fact that they prevent loss from 
leaching and erosion. 

112. Will crop rotation maintain fertility? — It must 
not be assumed that growing cotton in a rotation which 
supplies the soil with an abundance of organic matter 
will necessarily eliminate the need of commercial fertil- 
izers. Such a system will render the use of nitrogenous 
fertilizers unnecessary, and mineral fertihzers will not 
be needed on soils that contain an abundant natural 
supply of phosphoric acid and potash. However, much 
of the soils in the cotton-belt are quite deficient in 
phosphoric acid and, to a less extent, in potash. Maxi- 
mum yields on these soils cannot be obtained without 
the application of materials containing phosphoric acid 
and potash. 

113. Rotations for cotton. — A good rotation applica- 
ble to the greater part of the cotton-belt is: first year, 



100 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

cotton; second year, corn and cowpeas; third year, winter 
oats or wheat followed by cowpeas as a catch crop. 

If the farmer wishes to grow more cotton than is pro- 
vided by the above rotation, he should grow cotton two 
years in succession, and thus employ a four-year rotation. 

For thin land the Georgia Experiment Station recom- 
mends the following rotation: First year, corn with cow- 
peas; second year, oats or wheat followed by cowpeas; 
third year, oats or wheat followed by cowpeas; fourth 
year, cotton. 

In the northeastern part of the cotton-belt, the follow- 
ing rotation is rather widely apphcable: First year, corn 
with cowpeas; second year, peanuts; third year, cotton; 
fourth year, cotton. 

In many sections, crimson clover is grown following 
cotton and preceding corn. 



CHAPTER IX 
TILLAGE FOR COTTON 

The tillage practices employed in the production of 
cotton are, as a rule, very poor. At least five reasons can 
be given for this. (1) A relatively large percentage of 
the cotton crop is produced on ''one-horse " farms, where 
thorough plowing and the use of improved implements 
are impossible. (2) A scarcity of heavy draft animals 
is often the cause of poor tillage practices even on the large 
farms. (3) A large percentage of the acreage in cotton 
is tilled by renters rather than landowners. In most cases 
little or no direct supervision of farm operations is given 
by the landowner, and, as a result, very superficial tillage 
is practiced. (4) Many unprofitable practices employed 
in the early days of cotton production in the South have 
become more or less traditional, being handed down from 
one generation to the next. (5) Little knowledge of the 
fundamental principles underlying the growth and nu- 
trition of crops. 

While tillage practices vary somewhat in accordance 
with soil and climatic conditions, the cotton-grower must 
remember that all practices are based on principles and 
reasons, a knowledge of which is absolutely essential 
to maximum success. 

PREPARATION OF THE SEED-BED 

The most important single factor in the profitable 
production of cotton is the pi'cparation of the seed-bed. 

101 



102 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

No amount of good tillage after the crop is planted can 
offset the ill effects of careless preparation of the soil. 

114. Drainage the first essential. — Until adequate 
provision has been made for the rapid removal of all 
surplus or gravitational water from the upper portions 
of the soil, a suitable seed-bed for cotton cannot be pre- 
pared. The experience of many years has demonstrated 
beyond question the fact that such modern and essential 
practices as early deep plowing, the incorporation of or- 
ganic matter, and thorough and frequent cultivation are 
of no avail on a water-logged soil. The discussion of suit- 
able tillage practices for cotton which follows is based on 
the assumption that adequate drainage has in all cases 
been provided, 

115. Disposal of stalks and litter. — If cotton is 
grown in a suitable rotation with other crops, there is 
usually little difficulty in plowing under all existing vege- 
tation, owing to the fact that cotton commonly follows a 
small-grain crop or a legume crop. On most farms, how- 
ever, cotton follows cotton and in such cases it becomes 
necessary to chop or break to pieces the stalks previous 
to plowing. This is most satisfactorily done by the use 
of a stalk cutter, the blades of which cut the stalks into 
short pieces. In many cases the stalks are broken to 
pieces after they become dry and brittle by means of a 
heavy stick. The rather common practice of plowing 
up, raking and burning the stalks should, in all cases, 
be avoided. 

116. Fall plowing for cotton. — The primary objects 
sought for in the preparation of the seed-bed are an abun- 
dance of water, air, and available food. On most soils 
sufficient water and food during the growing season cannot 
be had imless early fall plowing is practiced. Late spring 



TILLAGE FOR COTTON 103 

plowing usually insures too much air in the seed-bed, caus- 
ing it to dry out rapidly. 

It must be kept in mind that the matter of making 
plant-food available in the soil involves important and 
far-reaching chemical and biological processes. An im- 
portant object of tillage is to hasten these processes. 
It must be remembered also that under favorable condi- 
tions, considerable time is required for these processes to 
change the inert, insoluble soil constituents into a form 
suitable for nourishing the plant. Fall plowing starts these 
processes to work sufficiently in advance of the planting 
season to insure the presence of relatively large quantities 
of soluble food. On most soils such is not the case with 
spring plowing. 

Another important benefit of fall plowing is that it ena- 
bles the soil to absorb and hold large quantities of water 
during the winter months. Unplowed land retains but 
little water. It also gives whatever organic matter is 
plowed under sufficient time to be transformed into humus 
by the time the crop is growing. Undecomposed vegetable 
matter is of little value in the soil. On the other hand, 
it has been shown that a pound of humus will store up 
seven and one-half times as much water as a pound of 
sand and the sand will lose its water by evaporation three 
and one-half times more rapidly than the humus. A clay 
soil can store up only about one-fourth as much water as 
humus and will lose it by evaporation twice as rapidly. 

An excellent practice which is coming into favor among 
cotton farmers is to plant a winter-growing cover-crop on 
the land following fall plowing, which prevents the leach- 
ing of plant-food during the winter months, decreases 
erosion, and increases the amount of vegetable matter 
in the soil when it is plowed under in late winter. This 



104 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

practice necessitates a second plowing but the resulting 
benefits more than repay the cost of the extra labor. 

In the semi-arid sections of the cotton-belt it is usually 
necessary to use some form of subsurface packer on 
the soil immediately following fall plowing to reestablish 
capillarity and to prevent the rapid drying out or blowing 
of the soils during the winter. 

117. Spring plowing for cotton. — • There are certain 
conditions under which deep fall plowing for cotton would 
be objectionable. This is especially true on deep, light 
sandy land subject to excessive leaching, or elevated sandy 
table-lands which drift in windy weather. Where the rain- 
fall is sufficient, these soils are much benefited by disking 
and the planting of a cover-crop in the fall. Breaking 
should be deferred until late winter or spring. 

There are also rich, moist river-bottom and virgin black 
prairie soils in the Gulf states that are best plowed in the 
spring for cotton, owing to the fact that they already con- 
tain a surplus of available plant-food, which condition 
tends to augment the growth of stalks at the expense of 
fruit. 

118. Depth of plowing. — The proper depth of break- 
ing cotton soils will depend upon the character of the soil, 
the time of plowing, and the previous treatment of the 
soil. In general, the soil may be plowed deeper in the fall 
than in the spring. In fact, deep plowing just previous to 
planting is very objectionable. 

Clay soils should ultimately be plowed deeper than 
sands. The deepening of clay soils should be accomplished 
gradually in order that an excess of inert subsoil may not 
be plowed up at any one operation. The ideal practice 
is to plow from one to one-and-a-half inches deeper each 
year than the preceding year until the desired depth is 



TILLAGE FOR COTTON 105 

reached. An ideal plan is to use a disk plow so set that it 
will not bring the subsoil to the surface. With this im- 
plement the soil may be deepened more rapidly than when 
a mold-board plow is used. 

The ultimate aim should be to plow all cotton soils, 
except those upon which spring plowing is advisable, to a 
depth of at' least eight inches. The farmer must determine 
how soon he can secure this depth under his conditions. 

119. Subsoiling. — This is a term applied to the 
loosening of the subsoil without bringing it to the surface. 
It is accomplished by first employing an ordinary turn- 
plow, and then in its furrow running a special subsoil plow. 
As this latter plow has no mold-board, it merely loosens 
the subsoil without bringing it to the surface. 

In the humid section of the cotton-belt, fine textured 
subsoils often become so close and compact as a result 
of the abundant rainfall, that air and water penetrate 
them with difficulty. Such soils are usually benefited 
by subsoiling, although the benefits may not be notice- 
able the first year. Soils with more or less porous sub- 
soils are not benefited by the use of the subsoil plow at 
any time. 

If profitable results are to be expected from subsoiling, 
the following facts must be kept in mind: (1) This opera- 
tion should be practiced only in the fall. This gives the 
subsoil sufficient time to become settled before planting 
time. (2) It is never advisable to use the subsoil plow when 
the subsoil is saturated with moisture, even though the 
top soil is dry. This merely puddles and packs the sub- 
soil, whereas the object is to loosen it. 

120. Subsequent tillage. — After the soil has been 
plowed, such tillage should be given as will produce a 
rather firm, well-pulverized seed-bed with a loose mulch 



106 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

on the surface. Where the land has been fall-plowed and 
no cover-crop planted, it is necessary that the soil be 
harrowed as soon after heavy rains during the winter 
months as possible in order to prevent the rapid evapora- 
tion of moisture. Such soils will usually require a thorough 
disking in the spring as they are likely to become compact 
as a result of the winter rains. 

Spring-plowed soils should be immediately harrowed 
after plowing thoroughly to pulverize all clods and to 
more or less firm the soil. If harrowing is deferred until 
the clods become dry, the task of pulverizing then becomes 
very laborious. 

The implements commonly used to work the plowed 
soil into a good seed-bed are the disk harrow, the spring- 
tooth harrow, and the smoothing harrow. A subsurface 
packer is profitably used on soils plowed in the late spring. 
A disk harrow can be made to serve the same purpose by 
weighting it and by having the disks set with only a slight 
angle to them. 

121. Ridging versus level preparation. — The almost 
universal practice in the South is to plant cotton on ridges 
or beds. This practice is based upon the fact that when 
bedded the soil warms up faster and earlier in the spring, 
drainage is facilitated and it is easier to get a good stand. 
The cotton plant, being a native of the tropics, demands a 
high degree of temperature for the germination of its seed. 
It is also true that in many cases the soil will run together 
and get very compact unless the ridging system is prac- 
ticed. Under these conditions there is great danger that 
the young plants will be drowned out in wet weather. 
The principal objection to ridging is that it causes the soil 
to dry out rapidly in dry weather by greatly increasing 
the surface area exposed. This objection is to an extent 



TILLAGE FOR COTTON 107 

overcome by partially harrowing or dragging down the 
ridges before planting. 

On sandy, well-drained land farmers sometimes plant 
cotton without ridging the soil. In such cases very shallow 
planting is necessary and extreme care must be exercised 
to prevent covering the plants at the first cultivation. 

In the western part of the cotton-belt where the rainfall 
is scant, ridging for cotton is not necessary and is often 
detrimental. 

122. Forming the ridges. — As a rule the ridges 
should be formed at least fifteen days before planting. 
This allows the soil to settle and become warm. On heavy, 
cold soils, ridging at an even earher date is advisable. In 
most cases the ridges are formed by means of an ordinary 
mold-board plow, four to six furrow slices being thrown 
together. An improvement on this practice would be the 
use of a double-mold-board plow, or lister, for forming the 
ridges, as much labor would thereby be saved. 

If commercial fertiUzers are to be appUed, a shovel plow 
is first used to open a center furrow in which the fertilizer 
is drilled. The beds are subsequently formed immediately 
over the fertilizer. In many sections the fertilizers are 
applied and listed upon about fifteen days before planting, 
the ridges not being finished until some ten days later. 

In sections where no fertiUzer is used, the advantage of a 
center furrow is a disputed question. If the soil is loose at 
the time of forming the ridges, the use of the center furrow 
is usually of no advantage. However, in stiff land where 
the plowing has been done early, the use of a center furrow 
is advisable as it provides deep and thorough preparation 
under the center of the beds. 

Just before planting, the height of the beds should be 
reduced by rpeans of a harrow or drag. Drawing a smooth- 



108 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

ing harrow lengthwise the beds reduces their height, drags 
out trash and clods, and flattens the surface preparatory 
to the use of the planter. This planting on relatively low 
beds is quite important. The cultivation can be more 
nearly level, thus conserving moisture in the summer when 
it will be needed. On well-drained, sandy soil, the beds 
should be dragged down almost level. 

PLANTING 

123. Time of planting. — It is not safe to plant cotton 
until at least two weeks after the average date of the last 
killing frost in the spring. In the extreme southern part 
of the cotton-belt, most of the crop is planted in April, 
whereas in the extreme northern part, planting does not 
begin until near the first of May. 

Nothing is to be gained by planting cotton before the 
soil becomes warm in the spring. The seed will either 
rot rather than germinate, or the vigor of the young 
plants will be greatly decreased. The slow growth of the 
plants under such conditions, greatly increases the cost 
of cultivation. 

In sections subject to the ravages of the boll- weevil, 
cotton should be planted as early as possible after the 
soil becomes warm. 

124. Advantage of planting heavy seed. — Investiga- 
tions conducted by Webber and Boykin strongly indicate 
the superiority of heavy cotton seed over light seed and the 
advisability of farmers eliminating the light seed before 
planting. These investigators found that when the seed 
are treated with a paste made from ashes, acid phosphate, 
or fine dry soil or flour, the "linters" or "fuzz" can be 
pasted down and that the seeds can thus be prevented from 
clinging together. The separation is accomplished by the 



TILLAGE FOR COTTON 



109 



use of an ordinary type of air blast fanning mill in which 
the flue is lengthened to four and one-half feet in order 
that the seed may be exposed more fully to the action of 
the air. (For the details of this method the reader is 
referred to Farmers' Bulletin 285 of the United States 
Department of Agriculture.) It was found that the heavy 
seed germinated better than the light ones and also gave 
a higher yield of seed cotton as shown by the following 
data taken from a report of these investigations: 

Table 7. Showing Relative Value of Light and Heavy Cotton 

Seed 



Kinds of Seed Planted 


First 
Pick 


Second 
Pick 


Third 
Pick 


Total 
Yield 


Test at Lamar, S. C: 

Heavy (20 rows) 

Unseparated (20 rows) . 
Test at Hartsville, S. C: 

Heavy (14 rows) 

Unseparated (14 rows) . '. 


Pounds 

375 
335 

158^/4 
139 


Pounds 

2531/4 
228 

793 

7153/4 


Pounds 

419 
381 S^4 

212V8 
221 Vs 


Pounds 

10471/4 
9441/4 

1164^8 
1075^/8 



125. Quantity of seed. — It is customary to plant 
12 to 15 times the quantity of seed necessary to give the 
desired number of plants to the acre. A bushel of cotton 
seed contains between 120,000 and 150,000 seed. It is 
seldom that less than a bushel and often as much as a 
bushel and a half of seed is planted per acre. Planting 
in rows four feet apart and one foot in the drill requires, 
with a perfect stand, only 10,890 plants to the acre. A 
spacing of 18 inches in the drill requires 7,260, and 24- 
inch spacing requires 5,445 plants to the acre. 

With a good quality of seed and a planter that places 
the seed in a narrow drill, the quantity of seed required 



110 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

to the acre can be greatly reduced. However, under the 
best conditions it is seldom wise to plant less than one- 
half bushel of seed to the acre. 

126. Methods of planting. — Cotton is in nearly all 
cases drilled and afterwards chopped to a stand. The 
single-row planter is most commonly used, which opens 
the furrow and drops and covers the seed at one trip. With 
the idea of decreasing the expense of chopping, planters 
have' been put on the market which drop the seed at regu- 
lar intervals rather than in a continuous drill (Fig. 17). 
The satisfactory use of these planters generally requires 
that the seed be treated before planting with a paste of 
some kind to cause the "fuzz" to adhere to the seed. To 
do this the method referred to in paragraph 124 is rec- 
ommended. The use of this method reduces the amount 
of seed necessary to plant an acre. 

Cotton seed should be covered very shallow, especially 
if planted early. Deeper planting may be practiced later 
in the season when the soil is warm and there is not so 
much danger of heavy rains. Best results are secured by 
barely covering very early-planted seed, but when planted 
late it is well to put the seed in moist soil, provided this 
does not necessitate planting more than two and one-half 
inches deep. 

CULTIVATION 

127. Objects of interculture. — Farmers often pos- 
sess a confused idea as to the objects of interculture. 
Many have the very erroneous idea that the primary 
object sought is the deep stirring of the soil, and following 
out this idea, they attempt to accomplish, after the crop 
is up and growing, what should have been accomplished 
in the early preparation of the seed-bed. 



TILLAGE FOR COTTON 



111 



The primary objects of interculture are (1) to conserve 
moisture, (2) to keep down weeds, and (3) to permit the 




Fig. 17. — Interior view of a one-seed drop cotton 
planter. 

air to freely enter the soil. If the seed-bed has been 
properly prepared, deep tillage is not necessary in order 
to secure these objects. On the other hand, it is usually 
very injurious. 



112 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

128. Broadcast tillage for cotton. — Farmers are 
rapidly learning to appreciate the value of broadcast 
tillage for cotton. This operation is performed by running 
a weeder or light spike-tooth section-harrow across the 
rows, (1) after the crop is planted but before the plants 
are up, and (2) after the plants are up and well established 
but before chopping. If the section-harrow is used for 
this purpose, it should be adjusted so that the spikes slant 
slightly backward, especially for the cultivation given 
after the plants are up. 

There are three important advantages in broadcast 
tillage: (1) It thoroughly breaks the crust over the entire 
surface of the soil, saving moisture, destroying weeds in 
their first stages of growth, and enabling the young cotton 
plants to come through the soil easily. (2) It economizes 
labor as by this method ten or more acres can be gone 
over in a day. In fact, the broadcast tillage is, by far, 
the most economical cultivation that the crop receives. 
(3) It permits the operation of chopping to be effected 
with less labor. Broadcast tillage is not practical if a poor 
stand has been secured or if the land is foul with litter. 

129. Tillage by separate rows. — Before the farmer 
begins the cultivation of his cotton, he should be familiar 
with the following important facts: (1) Practically all of 
the food that the plant takes up from the soil is secured 
from that portion of the soil that is stirred in the prepara- 
tion of the seed-bed. (2) The plant derives Httle or no 
food from that portion of the seed-bed that is kept stirred 
as a result of tilling the crop. 

Knowing the above facts, the farmer can readily appre- 
ciate the injurious effects of deep cultivation, especially 
after the plants have become somewhat advanced in their 
growth. It results in limiting the feeding roots to a small 



TILLAGE FOR COTTON 1 13 

portion of soil, and renders useless a large amount of 
available food that with shallow cultivation would be used 
by the plants. 

130. The first cultivation. — This must be of such a 
nature as to stir the soil close to the plants without cover- 
ing them. Either double cultivators with fenders attached 
or single cultivators made similar to a side harrow may 
be satisfactorily used. The very crude practice of barring 
off the row with a turning plow should be avoided except 
in extreme cases. When cotton is thus barred, particu- 
larly if it is closely done, too much soil is taken away, 
the plants fall down after the hoes and the growth is 
checked. If no other damage is done, the crop is made 
several days late. The use of the turn-plow in barring off 
cotton is justified only when the grass has become so large 
as a result of protracted rains that its destruction by the 
use of more desirable types of cultivators is impossible. 
Many farmers, in using the two-horse or one-horse cultiva- 
tors, equip them with narrow sweeps or scrapes rather 
than with small points. The results secured are quite sat- 
isfactory, especially if the sweeps or scrapes are equipped 
with a fender. 

131. Chopping. — This operation follows immediately 
after the first cultivation by separate rows. The chopping 
or thinning is done with a hoe. One or two plants are left 
at the desired distance apart. Ultimately only one plant 
should be left in a hill. The ideal practice is to leave, 
at the time of chopping, only one plant at the desired dis- 
tance apart unless chopping is done when the plants are 
very small, or when there is danger that disease or un- 
favorable weather will destroy them. 

132. The second cultivation. — The first cultivation 
and subsequent chopping result in removing considerable 



a 14 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

soil from the row of plants. Therefore, an important ob- 
ject in the second cultivation should be to return this 
soil to the plants. To accomplish this purpose, rather 
wide sweeps or scrapes are commonly used on either one- 
horse or two-horse cultivators. These sweeps or scrapes 
must be set sloping enough so that most of the soil stirred 
will fall back of them rather than be pushed to the sides, 
in which case rather hard strips are left with no mulch to 
prevent evaporation. Any method of cultivation that 
does not leave the entire middle covered with a fine mulch 
is not satisfactory. The use of such implements as leave 
a narrow, uncultivated strip or "balk" midway between 
the rows of cotton should be abandoned. 

133. Subsequent culture. — The third and subsequent 
cultivations for cotton should be of such a nature as to 
keep the grass subdued and the soil well stirred without 
leaving the middles ridged or furrowed. The cultivation 
gets shallower as the roots get out in the row. Small 
buzzard wing sweeps on double cultivators are widely 
used for these later cultivations. After the cotton gets 
too large to plow with the double cultivators, single 
cultivators are used. On droughty soils cultivation 
should be continued until the cotton is locked in the rows. 
On very rich soils that have a tendency to produce too 
large a stalk, late cultivation is not advisable. 

134. Frequency of tillage. — No definite rules can 
be adhered to as to the frequency of cultivating cotton. 
The aim should be to keep the soil in such a condition at 
all times as will provide the objects of cultivation pre- 
viously stated in this chapter. To do this will necessitate 
stirring the soil as soon after rains as possible. For best 
results, at least five cultivations are usually necessary. 
On droughty soils six or seven cultivations are advisable. 



TILLAGE FOR COTTON 115 

135. The value of late tillage. — The most critical 
part of the cultivation of cotton is the late tillage. While 
there is little doubt that most farmers "lay by" cotton 
too early, much cotton is injured every year by late culti- 
vation injudiciously performed. Failure to practice very 
shallow cultivation at this advanced stage of the crop has 
prejudiced many farmers against this valuable practice. 
After the bolls begin to form and the vegetation becomes 
hea\y, the plants require large quantities of water. If 
late cultivation is not practiced, the soil bakes and the 
moisture evaporates. But if this late tillage is not very 
shallow an enormous quantity of feeding roots are de- 
stroyed. With the heavy top and the large crop of bolls 
to support, the reduced root system cannot supply the 
necessary food and moisture. To reduce proportionately 
its need for these materials, the plant sheds its forms 
and young bolls. On the other hand, much of the August 
shedding can be prevented by late, shallow cultivation. 

136. Distance between rows. — It is impossible to 
say just what the distance should be between rows of 
cotton because of the difference in the fertihty of soils. 
On rich soils well supplied with moisture the plants grow 
large, requiring more space than on poor soils, because of 
the outward growth of the long branches. Therefore, 
the richer the soil, the greater the distance between rows 
should be. With corn the matter of spacing is just the 
opposite. 

On poor upland soils the usual distance between cotton 
rows is 33^ feet. A less distance than this is seldom 
advisable under any conditions. On good upland soil 
capable of producing from one-half to two-thirds of a 
bale to the acre, the rows should be at least 4 feet 
apart. On rich bottom land or alluvial soils a distance 



116 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

of 5 feet or in some cases 6 feet between rows is advisable. 
Tests conducted by the Mississippi Experiment Station 
on the rich delta soils averaging one bale per acre indicate 
that best results are obtained when the cotton is grown 
in four foot rows with the plants 23^ feet apart in the row, 
or 10 square feet of surface for each plant. 

137. Distance between plants in the row. — The 
general tendency of cotton-farmers is to unduly crowd 
the plants in the row. The same conditions govern the 
spacing of plants in the row as determine the distance 
between rows. When cotton is planted in 33^ foot rows 
on poor upland soils, the distance between plants in 
the row should not be less than 12 inches. As the fer- 
tihty of the soil increases, the distance between plants 
should also increase. On very productive alluvial soils 
a spacing of 24 or 30 inches is advisable. On soils of 
medium productiveness a spacing of 18 or 20 inches be- 
tween plants usually gives best results. Experience and 
experiments have demonstrated the fact that when the 
plants are unduly crowded, the number of bolls to a plant 
is greatly decreased. 



CHAPTER X 

HARVESTING AND MARKETING COTTON 

Harvesting and preparing cotton for the market 
involve at least four important operations. These are 
(1) picking, (2) ginning, (3) baling, and (4) compressing 
into very compact bales for long distance shipping. A 
brief discussion of each of these operations and also a 
discussion of commercial grades follow. 

138. Picking. — Practically all of the cotton crop is 
still picked by hand. This laborious operation limits the 
acreage that can be produced and handled by a unit of 
labor and adds greatly to the cost of cotton production. 
Picking begins in August and continues until the middle of 
December. The greater part of the crop is picked in Sep- 
tember, October, and November. As a usual thing the best 
quaUty of lint is secured at the first and second pickings. 

An amount varying from 175 to 225 pounds of seed 
cotton represents an average day's work for an experi- 
enced picker. The price paid for picking varies from 
40 cents to 80 cents aT'lOO pounds, depending on labor 
conditions. In sections where labor is exceptionally scarce, 
even more than 80 cents a 100 pounds is paid. In picking 
cotton one should be careful to see that no trash is in- 
cluded. Diseased locks should not be picked, and stained 
or discolored locks should not be mixed with the general 
lot; otherwise the selling price will be reduced. 

139. Cotton-picking machines. — Many attempts have 
been made to invent mechanical cotton-pickers. Pre- 

117 



118 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

liminary trials with some of these pickers have given 
promising results. The chief difficulty is to perfect a 
machine that will pick thoroughly and rapidly the seed 
cotton without including trash and without injuring the 
unopen bolls. Several machines invented within very 
recent years have given considerable promise of doing 
this. It seems certain that in time a large percentage of 
the cotton crop will be harvested by mechanical cotton- 
pickers. 

"Some of these machines operate on the suction prin- 
ciple : the open end of a hose pipe is directed by the human 
hand close to each open boll, when the suction created 
by a revolving fan on the machine draws the seed cotton 
through a tube and into a hopper. 

"Other mechanical pickers entangle the seed cotton 
by means of innumerable, sharp, tack-like points im- 
bedded in narrow revolving belts, which are directed 
by human hands into contact with the open boll; the 
lint is instantly entangled and borne along the re- 
volving belt to the hopper, where it is removed by 
brushes." ^ 

140. Ginning. — After the seed cotton is harvested 
it is immediately hauled to the gin where the lint is re- 
moved from the seed. The ginning outfit includes an 
elevator for sucking the cotton through a cleaner which 
removes trash and dirt. Damp cotton should be al- 
lowed to dry before being ginned; otherwise the gin 
will break a large percentage of the fibers. Ginning 
usually costs the grower a dollar to a dollar and a half 
per bale. 

141. Types of cotton gins. — There are two principal 
types of cotton gins, the saw gin and the roller gin. The 

' Duggar, J. F., "Southern Field Crops," p. 365. 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING COTTON 119 

principles upon which these two types operate are entii'ely 
different. 

The saw gin, invented in 1792 by Eli Whitney, an Amer- 
ican, is used to gin short staple cotton and is the type 
commonly used in the cotton-belt, except in the districts 
growing Sea Island cotton. The important features of 
its construction may be described as a series of circular 
saws having fine teeth, which revolve between the in- 
terstices of an iron bed upon which the seed cotton is 
placed. The teeth of the saws catch the lint and pull 
it off the seeds. A circular brush, which makes four or 
five times as many revolutions per minute as the saws do, 
removes the detached lint from the saws. The brush 
creates sufficient draught to carry the lint to a condenser 
where it is pressed into layers. Modern gins consist of 
4 to 8 gin stands. The gin stands most frequently used 
have 60 to 80 saws, which are either 10 or 12 inches in 
diameter. These saws make 300 to 400 revolutions a 
minute. A suitable production for a 60-saw gin stand is 
one bale of 500 pounds an hour, or 5 pounds to a saw. 
Approximately one-third of the weight of seed cotton is 
lint, the remaining two-thirds being seed to which the 
linters are attached. Varieties differ considerably as to 
the amount of lint they produce in proportion to the 
amount of seed. 

The roller gin is used in ginning Sea Island cotton, the 
naked seeds of which are easily separated by rollers from 
the lint. This type is preferable for ginning all long-staple 
cottons, as in such cases, the saw gin breaks a large per- 
centage of the fibers. It is also used in ginning the short 
staple cottons of India and is the common type used 
throughout Egypt where long-staple cottons are largely 
grown. There are at least two distinct types of con- 



120 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

struction of roller gins in general use, but both of them 
depend upon the same principle for the removal of the 
fiber from the seed. In each type the seed cotton is 
brought in contact with a revolving roller, the surface of 
which is covered with leather, preferably walrus hide, 
which has a roughened surface. A metal plate or knife ex- 
tends across the machine tangentially to the roller and 
very close to it. The fine fibers adhere to the leather cover- 
ing of the roller and are drawn between it and the knife un- 
til the seed is pulled against the edge, and the fibers are 
severed. The larger types of roller gins will turn out 800 
to 1000 pounds of lint to a gin stand in a day of 10 
hours. 

142. Baling. — The cotton lint leaves the gin in a 
very loose condition and has to be compressed into bales 
for convenience of transport. This is done by placing 
it in a baling press with an outside wrapper of coarse 
burlap, in which it is compressed into comparatively small 
compass and held by iron ties. 

Bales from different countries vary greatly in size, 
weight, and appearance. The approximate weights of 
bales as put on the market from different countries are 
as follows: 

United States 500 pounds 

India 400 pounds 

Egypt 700 pounds 

Peru 200 pounds 

Brazil 200 to 300 pounds. 

American cotton bales are said to arrive at foreign markets 
in poorer condition than those from any other country. 
This is due largely to the fact that the bagging used for 
covering the American bale is of very poor quality and 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING COTTON 121 

insufficient in amount. Where the bales are not of uni- 
form length the ends of the long bales are sometimes taken 
off in loading the ships. Such bales usually, arrive at their 
destination in bad condition. 

The round bale, which has been prevented from coming 
into general use by the opposition of owners of compresses, 
is usually much better protected. Its weight is approx- 
imately 250 pounds. 

143. Care of baled cotton. — The fact that baled 
cotton does not absorb water readily has led to very care- 
less methods of handling it. It is rather common for both 
farmers and warehouse men to leave large quantities of 
baled cotton exposed to the rain for many months at a 
time. There is no question but that such treatment stains 
and weakens the fibers, especially in the outer portions 
of the bale, and thereby decreases the selling price. Cotton 
bales should be kept at all times under shelter, and, if 
possible, from direct contact with moist soil. 

144. Compressing. — The bales as they come from 
the gin are too large for economical shipment either by 
train or over water. For this reason, powerful steam baling 
compresses are to be found in practically every inland city 
and seaport in the cotton-belt. These compresses greatly 
reduce the size of the bales. 

In some cases the cotton lint as it comes from the gin 
goes immediately into these powerful compresses where 
it is packed into bales of very great density. 

SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF COMMERCIAL GRADES 
OF COTTON 

Cotton is bought and sold in accordance with a system 
of grading that has been agreed on by all of the leading 
cotton markets of the world. For correctly distinguishing 



122 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

the qualities that add to, or detract from the market value 
of cotton, a long period of practice in cotton classing or 
judging is essential. Most cotton-growers are ignorant as 
to the grade of lint that they are selling and are thus more 
or less at the mercy of the cotton-buyer. Courses in cotton 
classing are now being given by the larger number of the 
agricultural colleges in the cotton-belt. 

145. Important points in cotton valuing. — The points 
considered in valuing cotton are, in order of importance: 
(1) grade, (2) staple, (3) color, (4) amount of sand, (5) 
amount of dampness, (6) whether the cotton is even- 
running or not. Of these six points grade is, by far, the 
most important and will be considered more fully than 
the others. 

146. Grade. — By this term is meant the appearance 
of the cotton, primarily as regards cleanliness, although 
color is sometimes considered under this point. Any de- 
gree of "off color" or "tinges" will tend to lower the 
grade. 

There are seven full grades as agreed on by the leading 
cotton markets of the world. Classifying cotton into these 
seven full grades, however, does not satisfy the require- 
ments of the cotton merchant, who demands a much finer 
gradation. Consequently each grade is subdivided into 
what are known as half grades and quarter grades, which 
subdivision gives a list of twenty-six different grades of 
cotton. The names of the grades having the word "strict " 
are really half grades, while those having the words 
"barely" and "fully" are the quarter grades. Market 
quotations are based upon the grade known as middling. 
Consequently this is considered to be the basic or middle 
grade. The complete list of grades follows, the full grades 
being printed in bold-face type: 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING COTTON 123 



Above Middling 
Fair 

Barely fair 
Strict middling fair 
Fully middling fair 
Middling fair 
Barely middling fair 
Strict good middling 
Fully good middling 
Good middling 
Barely good middling 
Strict middling 
P\illy middling 



Middling 



6. 



Below Middling 
Barely middling 
Strict low middling 
Fully low middling 
Low middling 
Barely low middling 
Strict good ordinary 
Fully good ordinary 
Good ordinary 
Barely good ordinary 
Strict ordinary 
Ordinary 
Low ordinary 
Inferior 



The amount and size of the trash in cotton Hnt deter- 
mine, to a great extent, its grade. Finely divided trash 
is much more objectionable than large leaves. In fact, 
very httle deduction is made for a small amount of large 
trash. 

Grades and subdivisions of grades above strict good 
middhng are comparatively rare. The bulk of the white 
cotton grown in an average season in the United States is 
classed as either good middling, middling, or low middling. 
The time of picking is important in determining the grade 
of cotton. The high grades are composed largely of cotton 
from the first picking. This is usually harvested in late 
summer, before unfavorable weather sets in and con- 
sequently the lint is cleaner and has a brighter luster. At 
this time the leaves are still green and therefore trash is 
less abundant. 

The medium grades come largely from the second pick- 
ing. There is a tendency for the open cotton to be left 
on the plants longer and heavy dews or rains affect it 
adversely. The process of alternate wetting and drying 
injures somewhat the color of the lint. Leaves are de- 



124 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON BELT 

caying and more trash is included than at the first 
picking. 

The low grades are made up largely of cotton that 
has been picked after killing frosts. At this time the 
stalks and leaves are dead and much trash is attached 
to the lint. The color of the cotton is often bad owing 
to the prevalence of stained locks, and the repeated 
rains serve to remove that brightness and luster which is 
so desirable. 

The following table shows the approximate amount of 
waste occurring in the various grades and half grades from 
strict good middling to ordinary: 

Strict good middling 11 .50 per cent 

Good middling 12 .00 per cent 

Strict middling 12 . 50 per cent 

Middling 13.00 per cent 

Strict low middling 13.75 per cent 

Low middling 14 . 75 per cent 

Strict good orfinary 16 .00 per cent 

Good ordinary 17 . 50 per cent 

Ordinary 18 . 75 per cent 

147. Relative values of different grades. — The dif- 
ference in price between the different grades of cotton will 
vary in accordance with (1) the quantity of dirt and trash 
that go to waste in the manufacturing process, and (2) the 
supply and demand. In an unfavorable season resulting 
in a scarcity of the grades above middling, the difference 
in favor of the upper grades will be greater than in favor- 
able seasons when the bulk of the crop is of good quality. 
The quotations for Low Middling and Good Middling 
at various markets in the United States on February 2, 
1914, based on the United States standard of classification 
are shown in the following table: 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING COTTON 125 

Table 8. Quotations Based on the United States Standard 
AT Different Markets for the same Grades of Short 
Staple Cotton, February 2, 1914 ^ 





Low 
Middling 


Middling 


Good 
Middling 


New Orleans 

Galveston 


cents 
12.06 
11.44 
12.63 
11.56 
11:75 
12.25 
11.50 


cents 
12.81 
12.87 
13.25 
12.69 
12.75 
13.25 
12.50 


cents 
13.69 
13.69 


Memphis 


13.75 


Mobile 


13.19 


Charleston 


13.25 


St. Louis 

Little Rock 


13.88 
13.00 



148. Staple. — In the judging of cotton the next step 
after estabhshing the grade is to determine the staple, 
which comprises both the average length and strength of 
tlie fibers. The length of the fiber is considered to be a very 
important "spinning quality," although it is relatively 
unimportant in determining the grade. It does influence 
the price, however. The expert cotton judge often tests 
both the length and strength of the fiber at the same time 
by -simply taking a tuft and giving it one pull, judging it 
by the amount of "drag" or "cling" that must be over- 
come in pulling it apart. Sand and dirt are next deter- 
mined, usually by holding a handful of lint as high as one's 
head and shaking it so that the sand, if there is any, can 
be seen to fall from it. 

A rich, bright creamy color of the lint is a property de- 
sired in cotton, especially when it is to be used in the man- 
ufacture of goods that are to be sold in an unbleached or 

1 Farmers' Bulletin No. 591, p. 17. 



126 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

undyed state. Any decided "off color" that would be 
recognized by the buyer as "spots," "tinges," or "stains" 
will greatly reduce the price of cotton. These are care- 
fully watched for by the cotton judge. 



CHAPTER XI 



SOME IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF 
COTTON 

The three most destructive insect enemies of cotton, 
considering the entire cotton-belt, are the Mexican cotton 
boll-weevil, the cotton boll-worm, and the cotton leaf- 
worm. Other insect enemies of secondary importance 
that do considerable damage to the cotton crop, are the 
cotton leaf-louse, the cotton red-spider, the cowpea pod- 
weevil, and cutworms. 

THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL-WEEVIL {Antho7lomus 

grandis (Fig. 18.) 

It is thought that the cotton boll-weevil is native to 
Mexico or Central America, all evidence pointing to the 
fact that since prehistoric times 
it has thrived upon the peren- 
nial tree cottons of those re- 
gions. Its history in the cotton- 
belt of the United States begins 
in 1892, at which time it crossed 
the Rio Grande into Texas in 
the vicinity of Brownsville. In 
1894 this pest damaged the cot- 
ton crop rather severely in half 
a dozen counties in south- 
east Texas and during the ten years following it spread 
over the greater portion of the state. The boll- weevil 

127 




Fig. 18. — Adult boll-weevil 
showing characteristic 
teeth on front legs which 
serve to distinguish this 
insect from other weevils. 



128 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

entered Louisiana in 1904, Mississippi in 1907, and Ala- 
bama in 1910. In recent years it has spread eastward 
much more rapidly than northward. There seems to be 
Httle doubt but that within the next ten or fifteen years 
it will spread over the entire cotton-belt of the United 
States. 

149. Life history and habits. — There are four stages 
in the Kfe history of the boll- weevil, — the egg, the larva 
or grub, the pupa, and the adult. The first three of these 
four stages are spent within the cotton square or young 
tender boll. By means of the mouth parts, which are 
located at the end of the snout, the adult weevil eats a 




Fig. 19. — Showing variation in size of boll-weevils. 

tiny hole into the square, in which an egg is deposited. 
Within three or four days the egg hatches into a tiny white 
larva or grub. This grub feeds upon the inner tissues of 
the square, or the young boll as the case may be, becoming 
full grown within six to twelve days after hatching, pro- 
vided weather conditions are favorable. It is during the 
larva stage that the greatest damage is done. After attain- 
ing its normal size the larva passes into the pupa stage 
or the intermediate stage between the larva and the adult. 
The transformation from larva to adult usually requires 
from three to five days after which time the adult eats 
its way to the outside of the square or boll. The color 
of the adult weevil depends upon its age. The recently 



IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF COTTON 129 

emerged individual is light' yellowish in color, changing 
to a gray or nearly black shade as it becomes older. It 
is about one-fourth of an inch in length, including the 
snout which is about one-half the length of the body 
(Fig. 19). The breadth of the weevil is about one-third 
of its length. 

150. Food of the weevil. — So far as is known at 
present, the cotton boll- weevil has no food plant other 
than cotton. It has been erroneously reported as feeding 
upon peas and various other plants. Such reports are in 
all probability due to the confusion of the boll-weevil 
with other weevils of quite similar appearance. The 
fact that the boll-weevil feeds on no plant other than cot- 
ton is made the basis of important measures of control. 

151. Rate of increase. — The time required for a 
boll-weevil to develop from an egg to an adult depends 
upon weather conditions, especially as regards tempera- 
ture. Under average conditions from two to three weeks are 
required. The first eggs are laid as soon as the first squares 
appear in the spring and their rapid multiplication contin- 
ues until checked by frost. W. D. Hunter of the Bureau 
of Entomology, Washington, D. C, states that "a con- 
servative estimate of the possible progeny of a single pair 
of weevils during a season beginning on June 20th, and 
extending to November 4th is 12,755,100." That this 
estimate is very conservative is shown by the fact that 
Hunter allowed for only four generations in a season, and 
for each female's laying only 100 eggs. Investigations 
seem to indicate that the average number of eggs laid by 
each female is approximately 140. 

152. Dissemination. — The boll-weevil moves from 
one locality to another by making successive short flights. 
It is little inclined to fly, however, except during the period 



130 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

from the middle of August to the end of the season. This 
is spoken of as the "dispersion period." At this time there 
is always a movement from fields in all directions probably 
in search of hibernating quarters. It was at first thought 
that this tendency of the weevils to fly at this season of 
the year was due to a scarcity of food. Investigations 
have shown, however, that this movement is due to a 
well-developed instinct on the part of the weevils for ex- 
tending their range into new territory. It is at this season 
of the year that the weevils make their first appearance in 
uninfested territory. When aided by the wind, they have 
been known to travel a distance of forty miles in a very 
short time. 

153. Hibernation. — With the advent of cool weather 
in the fall, the adult weevils begin to look for hibernating 
quarters. They fly in all directions and finally take refuge 
in any place that will afford some protection. They may 
pass the winter in woods, hedges, corn fields, farm build- 
ings, hay stacks, Spanish moss, under grass and weeds or 
other trash, or in dead cotton burrs. During the hiber- 
nating period the weevils take no food, remaining practi- 
cally dormant. Recent investigations have shown that 
in ordinary winters less than three per cent of the weevils 
that go into hibernating quarters in the fall live through 
the winter. On the appearance of warm weather in the 
spring, those weevils that have survived the winter emerge 
from their winter quarters and fly in search of the nearby 
cotton fields. 

154. Damage. — It is in the larva stage that the boll- 
weevil does its greatest damage. After the egg has been 
deposited in the cotton square, the developing larva pre- 
vents the further development of the square. Even 
relatively large bolls that have been punctured either 



IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF COTTON 131 

make no further growth or open only one or two of their 
locks. A fair estimate of the damage inflicted upon the 
cotton crop by the boll-weevil is hard to make owing to 
the fact that it varies greatly from year to year. The 
injury is much greater in wet than in dr}'- seasons. The 
damage is less in prairie regions where a minimum amount 
of protection is afforded the hibernating weevils during 
the winter months. Investigations by the Bureau of En- 
tomology, Washington, D. C, and by E. D. Sanderson, 
forraely State Entomologist of Texas, indicate that dur- 
ing the period from 1902 to 1911 the farmers of Texas, 
without considering the value of the seed, sustained an an- 
nual loss of $2.70 an acre, due to the ravages of the weevil. 
It is assumed that the average area planted in cotton in 
Texas during this period was 10,000,000 acres, in which 
case the annual loss for the state for this period was ap- 
proximately $27,000,000. Hunter states that "a conserva- 
tive estimate shows that since the weevil has infested this 
country it has caused a loss of 2,550,000 bales of cotton 
at a value of about $125,000,000." This statement em- 
braces the period from 1892 to 1911. 

155. Means of control. — No entirely successful 
means of fighting the cotton boll-weevil has, as yet, been 
devised. Years of experience, observation and study, 
especially as regards the life history and habits of this 
insect have brought to light some very effective means of 
reducing the injury which it inflicts. The more important 
of these are briefly outlined below. 

156. Destroy cotton stalks early in fall. — Those who 
have given most study to the boll-weevil problem agree 
that the most important step in reducing the damage 
from this insect is the early destruction of the cotton 
stalks. There are two principal reasons why this practice 



132 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

is so effective. (1) It results in the immediate destruction 
of many of the weevils. (2) It cuts off the food supply 
of the weevils which survive this operation. As a result 
of this scarcity of food, a large percentage of the weevils 
starve before the period of hibernation arrives, and those 
that go into winter quarters are so weakened as to greatly 
reduce the chances of surviving the winter. In sections 
where the weevils are very numerous, there is little hope 
of securing any cotton from the late crop of squares. 
Hence the crop from the relatively early maturing bolls 
should be picked as early as possible and the stalks de- 
stroyed, certainly not later than November 1st in most 
sections and earlier if possible. 

There are three methods of destroying the stalks: (1) 
by up-rooting and burning; (2) by cutting and plowing 
under; (3) by pasturing. 

Plowing the stalks up, raking them into windrows, and 
burning as soon as they are sufficiently dry is the most 
effective method. It has the objection, however, of im- 
poverishing the soil of its organic matter. This objection 
can be overcome by a rational system of cropping, in which 
green-manure crops are included. 

In sections where the loss of the organic matter is es- 
pecially serious, the farmer is advised to cut the stalks 
with a stalk cutter as early as possible and follow immedi- 
ately with a plow that will bury them deeply. Pasturing 
the stalks is not as satisfactory as either of the above 
methods and it is advisable only when the other methods 
cannot be employed. 

157. Destroy weevils in hibernating places. — As 
many weevils live over winter in trash along turnrows, 
in hedges and fence corners, it is especially advisable 
that all rubbish and trash around or near the cotton fields 



. >l 



IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF COTTON 133 

be collected and burned. It must be remembered that 
of the thousands of weevils that fly out of the cotton fields 
for hibernation, many are still within reach of the farmer. 

158. Make provision for an early crop. — As com- 
paratively few boll-weevils survive the winter, the farmer 
should strive in every way possible to induce his cotton 
to set and develop a large number of bolls early in the 
season, before the weevils have multiplied sufficiently 
to do much damage. The important means of securing 
an early crop are given: (1) A well-drained soil. (2) 
Early and thorough preparation of the seed-bed. (3) 
The use of such varieties as naturally set and develop a 
large percentage of their bolls early. (4) The liberal use 
of commercial fertilizers where necessary to insure a prop- 
erly balanced supply of food to the plants. A deficiency 
of either nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash will delay 
maturity. (5) Shallow and frequent cultivation. 

159. Proper spacing of plants. — The boll-weevil 
has natural enemies such as heat and parasites. The 
wide spacing of the plants augments the action of these 
natural enemies. The hot summer's heat not only checks 
the rate at which the weevils multiply, but greatly in- 
creases their mortality, especially during the larva stage. 
The farmer can take advantage of this by giving an abun- 
dance of space between the cotton rows and between the 
plants in the row. Thick spacing of the cotton plants, per- 
mitting the limbs to overlap freely, produces ideal condi- 
tions for the development of the weevil. On land of average 
productiveness where the weevils are abundant the rows 
should be five feet apart. This admits the sun readily to 
the infected squares. 

Investigations have shown that the mortality of the 
larvsB is less in the infested squares that drop and remain 



134 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

under the shade of the branches than in those squares 
that are brought to the middles between the rows. As a 
result of this discovery, W. E. Hinds has devised a chain 
cultivator which brings the infested squares out of the 
shade of the plants, leaving them exposed to the sun mid- 
way between the rows. 

In humid regions, provided labor is cheap, it is rec- 
ommended that the first-appearing weevils and first- 
infested squares be picked from the plants. The squares 
should not be destroyed but should be placed in screened 
cages, which will prevent the escape of the weevils but 
will permit the parasitic enemies of the weevils to escape 
and continue in the destruction of more weevils. All 
methods of poisoning the weevils that have been so far 
tried have given disappointing results. 

THE COTTON BOLL-WORM (HeliotMs obsoUta) 

Next to the cotton boll- weevil, the cotton boll- worm is 
probably the most destructive insect enemy of the cotton 
plant. 

160. Description.' — When full grown the cotton boll- 
worm is from an inch to an inch and a half in length. 
The different individuals vary as regards their color and 
markings, almost every gradation occurring from a pale 
green through a pinkish or brown to almost black. When 
first hatched they are very small and often go unnoticed 
until their injury becomes rather severe. They are found 
on cotton from the time the squares are formed but their 
principal injury is noticeable late in the summer or fall 
after the bolls have grown to normal size. 

161. Life history. — As in the case of the cotton boll- 
weevil, the life cycle of the cotton boll- worm comprises 
four distinct stages — the egg, the larva, pupa, and adult. , 



IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF COTTON 135 

The eggs are deposited on growing corn, cotton, tomatoes, 
and sometimes on tobacco. Fresh corn silks are preferred 
by the adults as a place for depositing eggs to all other 
objects. 

The eggs hatch into small dark-colored caterpillars, 
or larvae, within from three to five days after being depos- 
ited. This is the destructive stage of the insect and for 
this reason is the one most generally noticed. When the 
larvae have completed their growth, which usually requires 
about 18 days, they crawl or drop to the ground, select 
a suitable spot and burrow from 2 to 5 inches into the soil. 
In their underground cell they go into the pupal or resting 
stage. In the summer months this stage lasts only 12 or 
15 days. The larvae that enter the soil late in the fall 
pass the winter in the pupal stage. At the end of this 
stage the adult insects emerge. 

The adult is a brownish yellow moth, measuring about 
an inch and a half from tip to tip of the expanded wings. 
These moths usually fly at dusk and after dark, feeding 
upon the nectar of fiowers. 

162. Food plants. — The cotton boll-worm is known 
to feed upon a large number of different plants. Its 
principal food plants are cotton, corn, tomatoes, tobacco 
and many garden crops. Corn seems to be the preferred 
food of the boll-worm. It feeds upon the succulent corn 
kernels and is often called the "corn-ear- worm." When 
the kernels have become hardened it turns to cotton and 
other crops. 

163. Damage. — The young caterpillars, when first 
hatched, feed upon the leaves and tender parts of the cot- 
ton plant close to where the eggs were laid. Later they 
attack the bolls or bore into the bud. Sometimes the larva 
v/ill eat the entire contents of a boll before it leaves it. 



136 FIELD CHOPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

In other cases it will eat its way through the boll and im- 
mediately attack another. In this way one boll-worm 
often destroys a number of bolls. 

164. Means of control. — As previously stated, the 
cotton boll-worm prefers corn to cotton as a food plant. 
For this reason the cotton fields are invaded only after 
the corn has become sufficiently mature to render it an 
unsuitable food plant. This usually occurs about August 
1st. Any cultural method, therefore, which tends to 
hasten the maturity of the cotton crop will serve to evade 
injury from the boll-worm. The most important cultural 
methods for accomplishing this result are: (1) Early plant- 
ing in the spring; (2) The planting of early maturing 
varieties; (3) The prgper use of fertilizers; (4) Early, fre- 
quent and thorough cultivation. As the insect passes 
the winter in the pupal stage in the soil, thorough fall 
or winter plowing will destroy a large percentage of the 
pupae by exposing them to weather and birds. 

Dusting the cotton plants with powered arsenate of 
lead in the latter part of July and the first of August, at 
which time many of the young larvae are feeding upon 
the tender parts of the plants, has been found very effect- 
ive. In applying the poison the operator rides between 
the rows of cotton, carrying in front of him a pole to each 
end of which is fastened a bag of poison. He shakes the 
dust out as he goes, poisoning from 15 to 20 acres in a 
day. The bags are made of closely woven flour-bag cloth or 
unbleached sheeting. This method is effective against prac- 
tically all insects that devour the foliage, bolls, or squares. 

Corn planted sufficiently late in the season to reach 
the silldng stage during the latter part of July -and the 
first of August serves as a trap crop for the boll-worms, 
as they prefer the corn to cotton. 



IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF COTTON 137 

THE COTTON LEAF-WORM (Alabama argillacea) 

The cotton leaf-worm, often incorrectly called the 
"army worm," feeds upon nothing but cotton and has 
repeatedly done extensive damage to cotton throughout 
the south for more than a century. 

165. Life history and habits. — The life cycle of the 
cotton leaf-worm can be more easily observed than that 
of the cotton boll-worm, for the reason that with the for- 
mer insect all four stages are to be found on the cotton 
plant, and frequently at the same time. The pale, bluish 
green eggs are deposited on the underside of the larger 
leaves near the central portion of the cotton plant. Within 
two to five days after being deposited they hatch into 
small, pale, yellowish green caterpillars. Hinds states 
that when full grown the caterpillars are "rather slender 
and reach a length of one and one-half inches. The cater- 
pillars of the earlier generatiofis usually show much less 
black than do those of a later peTiod near the end of the 
season. The light forms are quite bright yellowish green 
in body color with three narrow white stripes, and two 
rows of conspicuous black spots each set with a black 
spine, arranged along its back." 

When the caterpillars are from ten to fifteen days old, 
or as soon as growth is complete, the worms cover their 
bodies by drawing together parts of leaves, spinning a 
silken cocoon in which they pupate and finally transform 
to the adult or moth stage. This process is commonly 
termed "webbing up." The adult moths or "candle 
flies" are usually of an olive brown color. They fly, feed, 
and lay their eggs at night. Hinds states that within a 
week or ten days each female moth "may deposit from 
400 to 600 eggs and then dies." There are usually six 



138 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

or more generations of this insect during a growing season, 
two or three of which are very destructive. 

166. Damage. — It is the caterpillar stage which 
causes the damage to cotton. While very young these 
caterpillars feed only on the underside of the leaf on which 
they hatch. Later they move toward the top of the plant, 
eating the more tender foliage. After the caterpillars are 
five to seven days old the rate of destruction is very rapid, 
depending of course on the number present. Often an 
entire field of cotton is completely stripped of its leaves 
within two to five days. This pest is worse in unusually 
wet seasons. 

167. Means of control. — Owing to its feeding habits, 
the cotton leaf-worm is easily controlled by dusting an 
arsenical poison lightly over the top of the cotton plants. 
The same method is employed as recommended for the 
cotton boll-worm. For average cotton, three pounds of 
"powdered" arsenate of lead will poison an acre. If the 
cotton is rank, more poison will be necessary. One good 
dusting should be given at the beginning of each crop of 
worms. No time should be lost in applying the poison 
after the first damage is noticed. 

INSECTS OF SECONDARY IMPORTANCE 

168. The cotton leaf -louse. — This is a small green 
louse often found in great numbers on the tender parts 
of young cotton plants. In cool seasons this insect does 
much damage to cotton by sucking the sap from the 
plants. It usually disappears when settled hot weather 
comes. 

No thoroughly practical method is known for destroy- 
ing the cotton leaf-louse. Any insecticide that kills by 
contact would destroy this pest, yet the practicability 



IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF COTTON 139 

of these methods for treating cotton is questionable. 
Rather late planting of cotton has been found helpful 
owing to the fact that the cotton leaf-louse does most of 
its destructive work early in the season. There are some 
natural enemies of the cotton leaf-louse that help to keep 
it in check, such as the lady-beetles and certain small 
black four-winged flies. These flies sting the lice and 
deposit their eggs in their bodies. 

169. The cotton red-spider {Tetranychus gloveri). — 
This small "mite" is often found in great numbers congre- 
gated along the veins and in the depressions on the lower 
surface of the leaves of the cotton plant. It injures the 
cotton by sucking the sap from the tender part of the 
plants, causing, at first, the appearance of "slight yellow 
spots" on the surface of the leaves. As the injury increases 
the spots become larger and the leaves begin to curl. The 
cotton, when badly infested, has somewhat the appearance 
of "rusted cotton." 

Treatment is seldom attempted, although dusting with 
powdered sulphur in such a way as to blow it on the 
under side of the leaves has been recommended. When 
the injury is first noticed all injured plants should be pulled 
and burned. Spraying these injured plants with a two 
per cent solution of scalecide or a two per cent lime-sulphur 
solution, is also recommended. 

170. The cowpea pod-weevil (Chalcodermis aeneus). — 
This beetle or weevil does most damage to cotton on areas 
where cowpeas was the previous crop. The weevil is black 
with a long snout and is often mistaken for the cotton boll- 
weevil. It injuries the growing tender parts and buds of 
young cotton plants. 

Where the cowpea pod-weevil is very abundant it is 
advisable to plant no cowpeas on land that is to be planted 



140 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

to cotton the next year. Other legumes, such as soy beans, 
velvet beans, and crimson clover may be introduced into 
the rotation instead of growing cowpeas. 

Any treatment that will hasten the growth of young 
cotton will decrease the injury from this pest. 



CHAPTER XII 

DISEASES OF COTTON 

It is estimated that the annual loss to cotton-growers 
in the South as a result of cotton diseases varies between 
twenty-five and thirty millions of dollars. The suscepti- 
bility of the cotton plant to disease is influenced by sea- 
sonal conditions, the greatest damage occurring during 
seasons of heavy rainfall. It is also true that the preva- 
lence of certain cotton diseases is governed largely by soil 
type. Those diseases which cause the greatest injury to 
the cotton crop in the south are wilt, root-rot, root-knot, 
anthracnose, and Mosaic disease, incorrectly called 
"rust." 

COTTON-WILT {N eocosmospova vasinfeda) 

171. Occurrence. — Cotton-wilt occurs to a greater 
or less extent in every cotton producing state from North 
Carolina to Texas. It is most serious in the regions of 
sandy soils comprising southern and eastern South Caro- 
lina, southwestern Georgia and southeastern Alabama. It 
is pointed out by Gilbert, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, 
that the available records indicate an annual loss in the 
cotton-belt of at least $10,000,000 from cotton-wilt alone. 

172. Cause. — The cotton-wilt disease is caused by a 
microscopic fungus which lives as a saprophyte on the 
decaying organic matter in the soil. After entering the 
root of a cotton plant it becomes at once a true parasite. 
This fungus produces various types of fruiting bodies or 

141 



142 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

spores by means of which the disease is propagated. Any 
agency that will transfer these spores or the infected soil 
from one part of the field to another will serve to spread the 
disease. Chief among these agencies are cultivating tools, 
wind, drainage water, and the feet of men or of work 
animals. 

The fungi that produce the wilts of cowpeas, tomatoes, 
watermelons, tobacco, and okra are thought to be closely 
related to the cotton-wilt fungus. There is no proof, 
however, that these diseases are communicable to cotton. 

173. Symptoms. — The first appearance of this dis- 
ease is indicated by the yellowing of the leaves at their 
margins and between the veins. Later the leaves wilt 
and fall from the plants. The characteristic tendency 
of cotton plants to wilt when infected with this disease is 
due to the growth of the fungus in the water-carrying 
vessels of the roots and stems, such a growth cutting off 
the water supply to the upper portions of the plant. Us- 
ually the badly affected plants are completely killed while 
others may lose only a portion of their leaves, but the 
plants thereafter possess a stunted appearance. . An ex- 
amination of the tap-root or lower part of the main-stem 
of a cotton plant affected with wilt will reveal a brownish 
color of the wood in the region of the water-ducts. This 
darkened color is the result of the closely woven hyphse 
of the fungus growing in the water-carrying vessels. 

Cotton-wilt usually makes its appearance at first in 
small restricted areas throughout the cotton field, which 
gradually become larger until the entire field is affected, 
provided cotton is grown on the same land year after year. 

174. Remedies. — • Although barnyard manure and 
various fertilizing materials have been suggested as a 
means of controlling wilt, both farm experience and ex- 



DISEASES OF COTTON 143 

periments have demonstrated that these materials are 
ineffective. As the fungus Hves from year to year on the 
organic content of the soil, the use of fungicides or sterihza- 
tion processes are not practical. Much can be done to 
decrease the prevalence of this disease by keeping cotton 
off the diseased soil for a number of years. It is almost 
impossible, however, completely to starve out cotton-wilt 
by crop rotation, owing to the fact that the fungus will 
live as a saprophyte on the organic matter of the soil for 
many years even though all host plants are kept off the 
land. 

The most effective means of avoiding injury from wilt 
is the cultivation of wilt-resistant varieties. It has been 
found that the commercial varieties of cotton differ greatly 
as regards their susceptibility to wilt. Generally speaking, 
the large-boiled varieties are more susceptible than are 
the other groups. Beginning with some of the more or 
less resistant small-boiled varieties as a basis, the Bureau 
of Plant Industry has, as a result of 15 or 20 years' breed- 
ing, developed several strains of cotton that show marked 
power of wilt resistance. In fact, so resistant are these 
strains that there is now little doubt as to the possibility 
of controlHng the disease in this way. The more impor- 
tant of these resistant varieties are Dillon, Dixie, and 
Modella. 

In the growing of these varieties much care must be ex- 
ercised to see that no crossing from other less resistant 
varieties is permitted and that the seed is not mixed at the 
gin with other varieties. 

COTTON ROOT-ROT {Ozonium omnivorum) 

175. Occurrence. — So far, this disease has caused 
very little damage to cotton grown east of Texas, It is 



144 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

most injurious in! the Houston clay or black waxy soils 
of the southwest. This soil is usually quite compact and 
often poorly aerated, a condition which seems favorable 
to the development of the fungus causing this disease. 

Root-rot occurs on many plants other than cotton, 
such as alfalfa, cowpeas, sweet potatoes, and a rather 
large number of dicotyledonous weeds. It does not, 
however, seem to occur upon monocotyledonous plants, 
such as corn, sorghums, the small-grains, and grasses. 

176. Cause. — Cotton root-rot is caused by a fungus 
parasite which lives and spreads in the soil. Very little 
seems to be known about this infection or the progressive 
stages of the disease. The mycelium penetrates the bark 
and also the wood of the roots but it does not usually 
extend into the wood far above the surface of the soil. 

177. Symptoms. — The presence of this disease is 
usually first noticed by the sudden wilting and dying of 
the cotton plants. An examination of the root-system 
of the diseased plant will show that the rootlets and ex- 
ternal surface of the roots have been destroyed. The 
fungus also invades the fibro-vascular system of the under- 
ground parts of the plant. The surface of the diseased 
roots is usually Covered with dirty yellowish strands or 
thin wefts of the fungus filaments. While a few plants 
are sometimes killed by this disease during the early 
stages of their growth, they are far more commonly killed 
after some of the bolls begin to mature. 

178. Remedies. — As this disease thrives best in an 
unaerated soil, remedial measures are based largely on 
the principle that air must circulate freely through the 
soil. Where possible, deep fall plowing is advisable. 
Investigations conducted near Luling, Texas, by the 
Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C, indicate 



DISEASES OF COTTON 145 

that the soil should be plowed not less than seven and 
preferably nine inches deep if favorable results are to be 
expected. It was also found that subsoiling was very- 
effective in decreasing the -disease. 

As root-rot does not affect grasses and grains, the prev- 
alence of the disease is greatly decreased by growing these 
crops on the land for two or three years preceding the grow- 
ing of cotton. The results obtained from practicing such 
a cropping system are, however, not always uniform and 
satisfactory. 

The application of fungicides or other chemicals or fer- 
tiHzers to the soil as a means of controlling root-rot is 
entirely impractical. 

ROOT-KNOT (Heterodera radicicola) 

179. Occurrence. — Root-knot is essentially a pest 
characteristic of light, sandy soils. As a rule, it is not 
serious on soils containing a large percentage of clay. 
This disease is very often associated with cotton-wilt in its 
occurrence. Unlike cotton-wilt, the root-knot attacks a 
large number of plants other than cotton. Some of the 
plants often affected by this disease are, — soy bean, 
cowpea (all varieties except Iron and Brabham and cer- 
tain hybrids of these varieties), crimson clover, bur clover, 
cucumber, watermelon, tomato, tobacco, peach, and pecan. 

180. Cause. — This trouble is caused by microscopic 
worms known as nematodes or eel worms which burrow 
into the roots, thus setting up irritations which later de- 
velop into wart-like excrescences or knots. These worms 
vary in length from V20 to Voo of an inch. The knots or 
galls produced by these worms vary in size from tiny 
enlargements on the small roots to knots an inch or more in 
diameter on the large ones. 



146 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

181. Symptoms. — One of the first symptoms of this 
disease is the dwarfing of the plants. Many of the bddly 
affected plants wilt and die. In other cases the plants 
may show no striking symptoms other than those exhibited 
by the roots. It has been noticed that when the affected 
roots begin to die, new roots are sent out finally resulting 
in a bushy and somewhat tangled root-system. 

As previously mentioned, root-knot is often associated 
with cotton-wilt, in which case it increases the injury 
due to the latter disease. The wounds which the nema- 
todes make in the roots furnish points of entrance for the 
wilt fungus, which then completes the destructive work. 

182. Remedy. — - Root-knot can be controlled by the 
use of proper crop rotations. In arranging this rotation 
one must remember that only such crops as are immune 
to the nematode attacks must be grown until the worms 
are sufficiently starved out of the soil to permit the suc- 
cessful growth of susceptible crops. It is also important 
that any weeds attacked by these worms be eradicated. 
In ridding the soil of the nematode disease, many farmers 
grow small-grains on the land during the winter months, 
and occupy the land during the summer with sorghum, 
millet, June corn, or the resistant varieties of cowpeas. 

COTTON ANTHRACNOSE (Glomerella gossypii) 

183. Occurrence. — Anthracnose, often known as 
pink-boll or boll-rot, occurs very generally throughout 
the cotton-belt. It is estimated that the annual loss from 
the disease amounts to several million dollars. Seasonal 
conditions determine, to a large extent, the prevalence of 
this disease. A very dry season retards the development 
of the spores and affords a natural means of control. Wet 
seasons greatly augment the injury from anthracnose. 



DISEASES OF COTTON 147 

184. Cause. — This disease is caused by a mold-like 
parasitic fungus which penetrates ahnost all portions of the 
cotton plant. Recent investigations have revealed the 
fact that in the development of anthracnose, two kinds of 
spores are produced, namely, the conidia and the asco 
spores. The former are produced by the millions and are 
responsible for the pink coloring so characteristic of the 
disease. It seems that the perfect or asco spore stage of the 
disease has been only rarely observed. Anthracnose is 
spread by insects or under certain conditions by the wind. 
It is also carried in or on the seed. Spores of this fungus 
are left in the cotton gin by badly diseased lots of cotton, 
the result being that seed otherwise free from the disease 
are infected. 

185. Sjrmptoms. — Usually the first visible indica- 
tion of anthracnose is the occurrence on the bolls of minute 
round, dull reddish spots. As these spots increase in size, 
the spores develop and give the diseased portion a char- 
acteristic pinkish color. In very dry weather the spores are 
scarce and the diseased areas may have a grayish cast. 

Badly diseased bolls produce rotten and discolored lint. 
Often they only partially open and the Hnt is hard to 
gather and in many cases is left in the field. IMuch damage 
is also done in cases where this disease attacks the young 
seedlings; it often completely kills the sprouts before they 
appear above ground or causes a "damping-off" near the 
soil of seedlings that are from 2 to 4 inches high. The 
pedicels of the bolls are often attacked, the result of which 
attack is that the bolls dry up and drop off. 

186. Remedies. — Experiments have indicated that 
anthracnose is a disease that is largely preventable. Pre- 
ventive measures involve, (1) planting only seed that is 
free from disease, (2) crop rotation combined with fall 



148 FIELD CROPS. FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

plowing, and (3) the use of varieties least susceptible to 
the disease. 

In dealing with anthracnose, one must remember that 
the fungus will live from one season to another in the seed; 
therefore it is of supreme importance that planting seed 
be secured from undiseased portions of the field. It has 
also been proved that the anthracnose fungus can survive 
in the field for at least a year on diseased bolls. It is there- 
fore imperative that cotton is not grown two years in 
succession on land infected with this disease. If some crop 
other than cotton is grown on the land, the disease will 
largely die out within one year. It seems that rather short 
rotations are very effective in fighting this disease. 

Fall plowing and the growth of winter cover-crops tend 
to reduce the prevalence of anthracnose. 

MOSAIC DISEASE 

187. Occurrence. — - This disease is often known as 
black-rust and yellow leaf-blight. It is rather common 
throughout the cotton-belt, doing its greatest damage on 
light wornout sandy soils or soils deficient in humus. 
Under such conditions the yields of cotton are often re- 
duced from 50 to 75 per cent as a result of mosaic disease. 
Any sudden check to active growth of the plants may in- 
crease the prevalence of the disease. 

188. Cause. — Mosaic disease is termed a phy^iologi- 
ical disease in that the fungi causing the trouble do not 
usually attack thrifty and vigorous plants, but only those 
plants that have been weakened as a result of unfavorable 
conditions. Probably the three most important soil 
factors responsible for the prevalence of mosaic disease 
are (1) lack of humus, (2) lack of potash, and (3) lack of 
di'ainage. 



DISEASES OF COTTON 149 

189. Symptoms. — Usuall}^ the first indication of this 
disease is the yellow, mottled appearance of the leaves. 
It is also a characteristic of this disease that the parts 
of the leaves farthest from the leaf veins "yellow" first. 
This diseased condition of the leaves so weakens them that 
they are often attacked by other fungi, and, as a con- 
sequence, are totally destroyed. The premature loss of the 
foUage prevents the normal maturing of late bolls. The 
lint of diseased plants is often of inferior quality. 

190. Remedies. — Prevention, rather than cure, must 
be eniployed in controlling mosaic disease. The unfavor- 
able soil conditions must be eliminated. Good drainage, 
the employment of cropping systems that will maintain 
the organic matter in the soil, and the addition of potash 
fertilizers to sandy soils, are the most important preventive 
measures. 



CHAPTER XIII 
MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN {Zea Mays) 

Indian corn is an annual grass, making its growth during 
the warmer part of the year. Its most important use is as 
a food for Kve-stock. The crop may be grown to maturity 
and the grain fed either whole or ground and the stalk and 
leaves utilized as a cured forage or stover. The plants 
may be utilized before fully mature as silage or for soiling 
purposes. 

The grain of corn is also rather widely used as a human 
food. Cornbread is the most important product of corn 
for human consumption, while certain breakfast foods and 
corn starch are secondary products. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE CORN PLANT 

191. The root-system. — The corn plant produces 
three classes of roots. These are temporary roots, primary 
roots, and adventitious roots. The root-system is not 
characterized by a tap-root such as is found in cotton. 

Temporary roots. — These roots serve to maintain the 
young plant during the first few days of its existence. 
When a kernel of corn is planted, the first evidence of 
germination is the swelling or enlargement of the kernel 
due to the absorption of water. Soon a small root emerges 
from the tip end of the seed and a little later 2 to 6 addi- 
tional roots sprout from a point midway between the first 
root and the germ chit. At"about the same time the "stem 
sprout" or plumule appears from the upper end of the 

150 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN 151 

germ chit or near the crown of the kernel. These tem- 
porary roots die as soon as the primary roots begin to 
develop. 

The primary roots. — The primary or permanent roots 
spring from the node of the underground stem, usually 
about one inch below the surface of the soil. The depth 
at which these roots originate and develop is, as a rule, 
independent of the depth of planting, although the Kansas 
Station has showed that "the roots of Hsted corn lie uni- 
formly deeper in the soil than the roots of surface planted 
corn." The primary roots of corn grow very rapidly and 
branch profusely. Growth takes place as a result of the 
constant addition of new cells at the growing point, which 
is located just back of the cap or tip. The result of this is 
that the tip of the root is pushed through the soil. During 
the early stages growth is lai-gely in a longitudinal direc- 
tion. When the root growth has extended to a distance of 
from 12 to 20 inches from the base of the plant, a portion 
of the roots turn abruptly downward, presumably to better 
enable the plant to secure water. In time these roots may 
grow to a depth of 3 or 4 feet. Lateral growth also con- 
tinues until the entire upper 3 to 6 inches of the soil be- 
tween the corn rows is completely filled with a mass of 
much branched, fibrous feeding roots. Under favorable 
conditions the lateral spread of corn roots is very rapid. 
Studies on root growth at the North Dakota Agricultural 
Experiment Station revealed that within thirty days after 
planting, corn roots from hills 3 feet apart had met midway 
between the hills at a depth of about 4 inches from the 
surface (Fig. 20). 

Observations at the New York, Minnesota, Wisconsin 
and Colorado Stations indicate that during the first ten 
to twelve days corn roots will spread laterally in the soil 



152 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



to a distance of 16 to 18 inches and that by the timb the 
plants are coming into tassel the root-system may cover 
a radius of 4 feet. 

The depths at which the greater part of the primary 
roots of corn develop varies somewhat in accordance with 
(1) the moisture content of the soil during the growing 
season, (2) the depth at which the seed-bed has been pre- 
pared and (3) the distance of the roots from the plant. 




FiQ. 20. — iii'ot ili,-tril)uti()u uf rnni at silkiii.u; time. 



In wet seasons the tendency is for the roots to develop very 
near the surface of the soil. This is especially true in cases 
of protracted rainy weather during the first part of the 
growing season. On a deeply prepared seed-bed the feed- 
ing zone of the roots is much deeper than where shallow 
preparation has been practiced. As a rule, the upper roots 
6 inches from the plant are about 3 inches below the sur- 
face and gradually increase in depth to 4 or 5 inches at a 
distance of 2 feet from the plant. 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN 153 

192. Structure of roots. — A young feeding root is 
made up of four different parts as follows: (1) The epider- 
mis or "piliferous layer" composed of a single layer of 
cells which forms the outermost layer of the root. From 
these epidermal cells the root-hairs develop. This layer 
together with the root-hairs is really the absorbing surface 
for food and moisture. (2) A rather thick layer of thin- 
walled cells lying just inside the epidermis and known as 
the cortex. This layer corresponds to the bark on a stem. 
(3) The endodermis which is really the innermost layer of 
the cortex cells. This layer is differentiated by thicker 
walls to form a definite sheath, the probable function of 
which is to prevent the escape of plant-food on its upward 
course through the central column of the root. (4) The 
central cylinder which is a columnar mass of cells com- 
prising the central portion of the root through which the 
plant-food is carried upward to the stem and leaves. 

193. Adventitious roots. — During the latter part of 
the growing period, corn often puts out roots at the first 
two or three nodes above the surface of the soil. These 
roots are termed "brace roots" or "prop roots" because 
they serve to brace the plant against wind. In the air 
these roots are, as a rule, unbranched, but they branch 
rather profusely after entering the soil and in addition 
to bracing the plant, they take up moisture and food. 

194. Stems. — ■ The stem of corn is more variable in 
size and height than that of any other cereal. In some 
varieties of pop-corn the stems or culms will not average 
over 20 inches high. In the West Indies, corn often grows 
to a height of 30 feet or more. From 5 to 10 feet is the 
average variation in the United States. Soil, climate and 
variety are the important factors that determine the height 
of corn plants. In the northern latitudes of the United 



154 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

States where the growing season is relatively short corn 
plants are not nearly so tall as in the southern United 
States. The diameter of an average corn stem between 
the first and second nodes in most field varieties will be 
from one to one and a half inches. 

195. Structure of the stem. — The culm of corn is 
made up of a succession of nodes and internodes. It differs 
from that of other cereals in that it is filled with pith rather 
than being hollow. The internodes of the corn stem are 
short at the base, gradually increasing in length toward 
the upper end, — a modification which adds strength to the 
culm. That portion of the culm which extends beneath the 
ground surface is composed of a series of six or eight short 
nodes, each bearing a whorl of roots. The above-ground 
nodes serve as points of attachment for the leaves, the 
ear-branches, and the tillers. Each above-ground node 
bears a leaf and also a bud. With most varieties under 
normal conditions, only one or two of the buds develop, 
the others remaining dormant. 

A number of the above-ground internodes of corn are 
alternately grooved or flattened. Each groove is covered 
by a leaf-sheath and accommodates the embryonic ear or 
the young ear-branch as the case may be. 

If a cross-section of the corn stem is examined, it will be 
seen that the outer covering of the stem is a thin shell of 
hard tissue which is really a mass of closely woven fibro- 
vascular bundles. The chief function of this outer tissue 
is to give strength and rigidity to the stem. The central 
portion of the stem is composed of a mass of large and 
loosely arranged parenchyma cells known as the pith. 
Throughout this loose mass of tissue are the fibrous strands 
or fibro-vascular bundles which serve as the circulatory 
ducts for the water and dissolved food in their passage 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN 



155 



from the roots to the leaves. This fibro-vascular tissue 
serves also as the passages for the return to the roots, ears, 




from. tKe 5* node 
above ground 



50 days 

1 21 

Fig. 21. — Structure of corn plant at different stages 
of growth: (1) Stalk one month old with leaves re- 
moved. A, tassel; B, rudimentary buds of ears 
and branches of which only one or two develop into 
ears; R, roots; R^, root buds — often called "brace 
roots ; " 5, a branch or sucker. (2) Stalk fifty days 
old with the leaves removed: a, the first whorl of 
brace roots; b, rudimentary buds; b^, the bud at b 
enlarged to show the rudimentary branch of the 
bud; b*, the ear. 

and stem of the food material that has been elaborated in 
the leaves from the materials secured from the air and soil. 



156 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

These conducting tubes are large and numerous in the 
corn stem, a characteristic that helps to account for the 
very rapid growth of corn under favorable conditions. 

196. Tillers. — Under certain conditions and in cer- 
tain varieties there is a tendency for corn to develop 
branches or tillers at the base of the plant, due to the 
growth of the buds located in the axils of the first leaves. 
As a rule these latent buds remain dormant but if condi- 
tions are favorable, as is the case when corn is grown on a 
rich soil well supplied with moisture, or when the plants 
are left far apart, they may become active and produce 
shoots which develop their own root-systems and in a 
measure function as normal plants. 

While it is true that soil and climatic conditions deter- 
mine, in a large measure, the tendency of corn to tiller, 
investigations have demonstrated that tillering is, to an 
extent, a hereditary tendency and can be influenced by 
seed selection. 

197. Leaves. — The leaves of the corn plant alternate 
on opposite sides of the stem and are therefore spoken of as 
being two-ranked. Each leaf is composed of three parts; 
the sheath, the Hgule, and the blade. The sheath is that 
portion of the leaf that surrounds the stem. It serves to 
anchor the leaf and also protects the bud or embryonic ear. 
The ligule is a membranous outgrowth at the point where 
the blade joins the sheath. It is often spoken of as the 
rainguard from the fact that it prevents the water and dirt 
which run down the grooved surface of the blade, from 
entering between the sheath and the stem. The blade is 
that part of the leaf that naturally hangs free from the 
stem. The margins of the blade are wavy, owing to the 
fact that the edges grow faster than the middle. This 
folded or wavy condition is a natural contrivance which 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN 157 

gives the blade elasticity and thus enables it to withstand 
wind. The blade is supported by the midrib and veins 
which are merely branches or extensions of the fibro- 
vascular system previously mentioned in connection with 
the stem structure. 

The surface of the leaf is covered with a strong epi- 
dermis, which contains many stomata. These stomata 
furnish the means by which air passes into and out of the 
leaf. They are also passage ways for the transpiration of 
moisture and for the intake of carbon dioxide from the 
air. 

A microscopic examination of the internal structure of 
the leaf will reveal a large number of chlorophyll grains. 
It is to these chlorophyll bodies that the green color of 
the plant is due. The chief function of the chlorophyll 
bodies is to arrest and make use of the energy of the sun's 
rays in performing the various activities of the plant. 

198. The flower. — The corn plant bears its stamens 
and pistils in separate flowers on the same specimen and 
is therefore monoecious. The staminate flowers are borne 
in clusters at the top of the plant, forming what is com- 
monly termed the tassel. The tassel is really a panicle 
of spikelets, each spikelet bearing two flowers. Each 
flower has three stamens, which, as they mature, lengthen 
and thrust the pollen sacs or anthers outside of the flower 
where they are exposed to the wind. When the anthers 
are mature they open and liberate the pollen grains. 
It is estimated that each anther produces about 2500 pol- 
len grains and that a single tassel produces approximately 
7500 anthers, resulting in the production of approximately 
18,750,000 pollen grains to a plant. Investigations as to 
the relative number of pollen grains to ovaries produced 
by a corn plant indicate that for every ovary there are 



158 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



from 10,000 to 20,000 pollen grains. This excess of pollen 
grains is essential because of the relatively small nmnber 
that really come in contact with the silks. 

199. The pistillate flowers are produced on a modified 
branch coming from the axil of a leaf on the main stem. 
This branch is merely a succession of nodes and at its 
terminus is borne a hard spike (the cob) on which the 
pistillate flowers develop in even numbered rows. Each 
spikelet on the spike or cob produces two jflowers, one of 
which is abortive. The other flower develops normally 
and is composed of (1) a flowering glume and palea, (2) 
an ovary, (3) a long, hairy style Imown as the silk, and 

(4) the stigma or that part 
of the silk that receives the 
pollen. The outer end of 
the silk is often split and 
besides possessing a cover- 
ing of small hairs, secretes a 
mucilaginous substance 
which aids in collecting 
pollen. There is but one 
style for each ovary. 

The spike and pistillate 
flowers are closely covered 
and protected by the modi- 
fied leaves borne at the 
nodes on the ear-shank. 
These leaves are spoken of 
as the husk. The process 

of fertilization is discussed in the chapter on the physiology 

of the corn plant. 

200. The ear. — The ear is borne upon a branch (ear- 
shank) which has been shortened so as to bring the nodes 




Fig. 22. — Ear of corn showing ten 
dency to laminate. 



MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN 



159 



very close together. The number of nodes in the ear- 
shank is the same as in the main-stem above the ear.^ At 
each node on the ear-shank a leaf is produced. These 
leaves are modified to form the husk or covering of the ear 
(Fig. 22). Corn ears vary in size from one inch in length 
in some of the varieties of pop-corn, to sixteen inches in 
some of the flint varieties. The number of rows of kernels 
on an ear may vary from 4 to 48. The most common varia- 
tion is from 4 to 12 inches in length and from 8 to 24 rows 
of kernels. The number of ears to the plant varies with the 
variety and with seasonal conditions. With most varieties 
one or two ears to the plant are produced, although the 
tendency to produce several ears to the plant is quite 
marked in some of the varieties of pop-corn and sweet 
corn. The development of the ear 
is discussed in the next chapter. 

201. The kernels. — The corn 
kernel is characterized by its 
large size as compared with the 
kernels of other cereals. It also 
possesses a veiy characteristic 
shape, being flattened, usually 
triangular, and having no crease 
or furrow on the side opposite 
the embryo. The most common 
colors exhibited by corn kernels 
are white and yellow, though 
red, blue, and mixed white and 
red (strawberry) colored kernels are rather common. 

The corn kernel is composed of the embryo, the endo- 
sperm, the aleurone layer, and the hull (Fig. 23). The em- 
bryo contains the young plant which is made up of the rad- 
1 Montgomery, E. G., " The Com Crops," p. 37. 




Fig. 23. — Botanical parts 
of the corn kernel and its 
integuments: a, embryo; 
b, mature ovary ; c, second 
glume; d, first glume; 
e, palea;/, lemma; g, ster- 
ile palea. 



160 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



icle surrounded by a root-sheath, a short hypocotyl and a 
simple cotyledon, that encloses the tightly rolled plumular 
leaves. The embryo is characterized by a high percentage 
of oil, protein, and ash. It is situated 
on the side of the kernel toward the 
tip of the ear. 

The endosperm consists of the store 
of reserve food surrounding the em- 
bryo. It comprises the biggest portion 
of the kernel (73 per cent) and is char- 
acterized by its high percentage of 
starch, although more than 50 per cent 
of the total protein in the kernel is in 
the endosperm. Hunt states that the 
„ _ endosperm of corn contains 6 to 10 

Fig. 24. — Cross sec- ^ • on ^ no j. 

tion of the outer per cent ot protem, 89 to 9o per cent 
cornr^P.^ pfrTcip! of Carbohydrates (principally starch), 
t, testa or integu- and less than one-half per cent each of 

ments; n, nucellus; ^ 

a, aleurone layer; ash and fat. 

s, endosperm. mi i ^ • j n 

ihe aleurone layer is composed oi a 
layer of cells lying between the hull and the endosperm 
(Fig. 24). It is characterized by its rather high per- 
centage of protein. 

The hull comprises the outer coverings of the kernel 
and consists of (1) the pericarp which forms the greater 
part of the hull and (2) the testa which is a layer of much 
compressed cells immediately underneath the pericarp. 
The layers comprising the hull are composed largely of 
cellulose material. 




CHAPTER XIV 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CORN PLANT 

The life-processes of the corn plant are similar to those 
described in connection with the cotton plant. Like 
cotton, the corn plant is composed of a net-work of cell 
walls — the skeleton, which gives the plant stability. 
Surrounded by these cell-walls is the protoplasm which 
assimilates the food and carries out all of the chemical 
processes necessary for life and reproduction. The food 
elements are obtained from the soil by absorption through 
the root-hairs or in the case of the carbon and some of 
the oxygen by air currents through the breathing pores 
of the plant, the stomata. 

COMPOSITION OF THE CORN PLANT 

202. Composition. — The weight of a young rapidly 
growing corn plant is approximately 90 per cent water 
and 10 per cent dry matter. As growth advances the per- 
centage of dry matter increases until at maturity it con- 
stitutes from 35 to 40 per cent of the total weight of the 
plant. The composition of this dry matter at different 
stages in the growth of the corn plant is shown in the table 
on page 162, which has been compiled from data given 
in Bulletin No. 175 of the Agricultural Experiment Station 
of Purdue University. 

The dry matter of a corn plant is much richer in nitro- 
gen during the early growth of the plant than at later 
stages of development. This, however, does not neces- 

161 



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162 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CORN PLANT 163 

sarily mean that the corn plant becomes less active in 
absorbing nitrogen compounds as growth advances. The 
explanation lies in the fact that the activity of the plant 
in producing nitrogen-free substances increases rapidly 
with growth. 

It is interesting to note that the young corn plant con- 
tains no starch but a large percentage of nitrogen -free 
extract, probably the most of which is sugar. Until the 
plant reaches the stage at which the ear begins to form, 
only a very small percentage of the sugar is transformed 
into starch. During the subsequent growth of the plant 
the sugar is transferred in large quantities to the ear and 
deposited as starch. At no time do the stalks and leaves 
contain more than 6.55 per cent of starch, whereas, accord- 
ing to the above table the dry weight of the ear is made up 
of 62.77 per cent starch at the stage when the kernels are 
hardening. A large percentage of the nitrogen taken up 
by the corn plant during its early growth is later deposited 
in the developing kernels. 

WATER REQUIREMENTS 

203. Leaf surface. — On an acre of land producing 
100 bushels of corn and three tons of stover there are ap- 
proximately 11,000 pounds of dry matter. To produce 
this large yield of dry matter it is necessary that an enor- 
mous quantity of water pass through the plants. To 
accommodate this rapid transpiration of water, the corn 
plant is necessarily provided with a large leaf surface. 

204. Figuring the leaf surface of a com plant. — The 
following method of figuring the leaf surface of a corn 
plant is taken from "Corn" by Bowman and Crossley: 
"In figuring the surface area of a leaf, measure the width 
three inches from the ligule, also at a point six inches from 



164 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

the tip of the leaf. Add these two widths, divide by two 
to get the average. Multiply this average width by the 
length of the leaf from the ligule to that point, six inches 
from the tip. To the area of this rectangle add the area 
of the isosceles triangle at the tip of the leaf, which is six 
inches in altitude, and as wide as the leaf is at that point. 
The sum of the two areas gives the leaf surface on one 
side of a single leaf. Multiply this sum by two and the 
entire surface of leaf will be ascertained. For approxi- 
mate calculations, the surface of one leaf multiplied by 
the number of leaves on the stem will give the entire leaf 
surface of the stalk." ^ 

205. Conditions affecting water requirements. — The 
term ''water requirement" as here used indicates the ratio 
of the weight of water transpired by a plant during its 
growth to the dry matter produced. Studies of the water 
requirements of corn t>y King, Widtsoe, Montgomery, 
Briggs and Shantz of this country, Wollny of Germany 
and Leather of India have demonstrated quite clearly 
that environmental factors are important in determining 
the efficiency with which the corn plant uses its water. 
The investigations indicate that when growing in a soil 
containing the optimum moisture content, corn will pro- 
duce more dry matter to the unit of water transpired than 
when growing in a very wet or a very dry soil. 

There is in most cases a reduction in the water require- 
ments of corn when fertilizers are used, especially if the 
soil in question is a poor one. It has been pointed out 
that a high water requirement is often due to a deficiency 
in the soil of a single plant-food element in which case 
growth practically ceases while transpiration goes on. 
It is probably true that any condition that limits the sup- 
1 Bowman and Crossley, " Corn," p. 52. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CORN PLANT 165 

ply (jf plant-food in ihv. soil will increase the water require- 
ments of the crop growing on that soil. 

The investigations have shown the water requirements 
of corn to be greatly affected by atmospheric conditions. 
Other things being equal, the rate of transpiration is faster 
and the water requirements are greater in an arid than in 
a humid atmosphere. Shading to the extent of reducing 
photosynthesis, tends to increase the water requirement. 

Montgomery compared narrow-leaf and broad-leaf 
types of corn with the result that the broad-leaf types 
showed the higher water requirements. 

206. Amount of water required. — A summary of the 
water requirement measurements of corn by different 
investigators shows considerable variation as would be 
expected owing to the fact that these investigators worked 
under quite different conditions, and with different vari- 
eties. To produce one pound of dry matter in corn required 
the absorption and transpiration of the following number 
of pounds of water as given by the different investigators: 
King working in Wisconsin, 350; Widtsoe working in 
Utah, 386; Briggs and Shantz, working in Colorado, 369; 
Wollny working in Germany, 233; and Leather working 
in India, 337. 

GROWTH 

207. Growth. — Those changes involved in the growth 
of a corn plant may be grouped into two clases. The first 
group of changes have to do with the "extension" of the 
plant or its increase in length and size. The second group 
of changes result in a change of the internal structure 
of the plant or differentiation of the cells into special 
organs with more or less definite functions. 

The increase in length and size of the plant results from 



166 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

the formation of new cells and the enlargement or extension 
of old cells. The former process occurs in what is -known 
as the formative region where the cells are constantly 
dividing. Adjacent to this is the elongating region where 
the cells expand or enlarge by absorbing large quantities 
of water. Both of these changes bring about a rapid in- 
crease in the length and size of the plant. During the first 
three weeks of growth all the organs of a corn plant are 
formed such as the full number of leaves and nodes, the 
embryonic tassel, ears and tillers, and most of the main 
roots. Subsequent growth involves largely the extension 
of these parts together with certain changes of internal 
structure characterized by the deposition of starch in the 
ear and the strengthening of the fibrous tissues. From 
the standpoint of the farmer the practical measure of 
"growth is the yield of the crop. 

208. The factors of growth. — Growth is conditioned 
upon vitality or the life of the plant, and heredity or the 
force which operates to reproduce specific forms. These 
are the internal factors of growth. The external factors 
are moisture, a suitable temperature, oxygen, the various 
nutrients and food materials, and light. 

209. The growth of roots. — Under favorable condi- 
tions the roots of corn may elongate at the rate of more 
than an inch a day. The formation of new cells occurs 
in the region just behind the root-cap known as the apical 
meristem. Extending back from this zone of cell division 
for a very short space is the zone of elongation in which 
the newly formed cells increase rapidly in size. This 
rapid formation and elongation of cells tends to push 
forward the root-cap and the root is thus gradually ex- 
tended in the soil. New lateral roots develop in the region 
immediately behind the growing root-tip. Under favor- 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CORN PLANT 



167 



able conditions these lateral roots develop abundantly 
and rapidly and the root-system of corn is thus profusely 
branched. 

210. Growth of stems (Fig. 25). — All of the nodes in 
the stem of a corn plant are formed while the plant is quite 
young. The subse- 
quent growth or 
elongation of the 
stem is due to the 
extension of the in- 
ternodes. Above 
each node there is a 
layer of cells pos- 
sessing a dark green 
color and filled with 
sap. These cells to- 
gether with the ex- 
treme tip of the 
stem constitute the 
growing points of 
the corn stalk. As 
the average corn 
stem possesses from 
fifteen to twenty 
nodes and conse- 
quently as many growing points, it is enabled to 
lengthen very rapidly during the growing season. The 
elongation of the corn stem has been likened to the un- 
folding of a telescope. The corn stem increases in diameter 
as a result of the internal accession of cells, rather than by 
adding layers on the outside. It is therefore an endogenous 
stem. 

211. Growth of leaves. — The author has been able 




Fig. 25. — Illustrating development of corn 
stem: 1, plant about 10 inches high; 2, sec- 
tion of 1, at base, showing that all nodes, 
leaves, and tassel are more or less developed 
at this stage; growth is internodal; 3, full 
grown stem with leaves removed; 4, cross- 
section of stem. 



168 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

to find very little data on the growth of corn leaves. That 
the growing zone of a corn leaf lies at its base is shown by- 
its continued elongation even though the tip of the leaf 
is cut off. There are, in all probability, two active grow- 
ing zones in the corn leaf, one being at the base of the leaf- 
sheath and the other at the base of the blade. 

Reproduction 

Attention has been called to the fact, page 27, that 
the production of a new plant does not begin with the 
germination of the seed. The seed itself is an embryonic 
plant possessed of a certain food supply and protective 
coverings. The new individual comes into existence with 
the formation of the seed as the result of a complex and 
peculiar physiological process known as fertilization. The 
organs of reproduction in corn have been discussed in a 
previous chapter and the process only will be considered 
here. 

212. Fertilization. — In order that fertilization may 
take place it is necessary that the pollen-grains from the 
tassel come in contact with the exposed portion of the 
silk. This transfer of pollen from the tassel to the silk is 
a mechanical process which takes place through the agency 
of the wind. It is spoken of as pollination. For complete 
fertilization to take place, every silk must receive at least 
one pollen-grain (Fig. 26). 

Each pollen-grain consists of merely two cells, a smaller 
cell within a larger. After lodging on the moist surface 
of the silk the larger cell germinates and sends out a 
vegetative tube which grows through the entire length of 
the silk or style, penetrates the ovule and comes in contact 
with the egg-cell (Fig. 27). The smaller cell of the pollen- 
grain, which is largely nucleus, divides and one of these 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CORN PLANT 



169 



nuclei is carried to the ovule and fuses with the nucleus 
of the egg-cell. When this is done, fertihzation is effected. 
The fertilized egg then develops into the new individual or 
embryo within the protecting coats of the seed. The pro- 
tecting coverings of the young seed were, before fertiliza- 
tion, the coverings of the ovule. There is one silk for each 
ovary and for any reason, should a portion of the silks 




Fig. 20. 



Illustrating the process of fertiliza- 
tion of the corn flower. 



fail to receive pollen-grains, those ovules will not develop 
and the result will be an ear on which some grains are 
lacking. It often happens in arid sections that dry 
hot winds kill the pollen-grains and prevent the pro- 
duction of grain, even though a vigorous stalk is pro- 
duced. 

213. Double fertilization. — The process of fertiliza- 
tion described above causes the development of only the 



170 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



embryo.^ The endosperm of the grain develops as the 
result of a fusion separate from the one already considered. 
Mention has been made of the fact that the nucleus of 
the pollen-grain divides into two nuclei, only one of which 
fuses with the egg-cell. The second male nucleus from 
the pollen-grain fuses with the nucleus of the embryo-sac, 
this union developing into the endosperm of the grain. 




Fig. 27. — Illustrating structure of corn kernel at pollination: 1, pollen- 
grains; 2, silk; 3, pollen tube; 4, kernel husk; 5, ovary wall; 6, testa; 
7, tegmen; 8, nucellus; 9, embyro sac; 10, micropyle. 

The fertilization of both the nucleus of the egg-cell to 
form the embryo and the nucleus of the embryo-sac to 
form the endosperm is spoken of as double fertilization. 
As a result of this process, the endosperm may acquire, 
as well as the embryo, qualities of the pollen-producing 
plant, such as color or chemical content. Examples of 
this may be seen in the fact that when pollen from the 

^ " Text-book of Botany," by Coulter, Barnes & Cowles, Vol. 1, 
pp. 267-269. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CORN PLANT 



171 



black Mexican or Cuzco varieties of corn, in which the 
aleurone layer of the grain is bluish-black, is placed on 
the silks of white or yellow varieties, many of the kernels 
developing will show the bluish-black color. Also if the 
silks of sweet corn receive pollen from Flint and Dent 
varieties many of the kernels produced as a result of this 
immediate cross will ^ 

possess the character- 
istic endosperms of 
the parent plants. 
Such first-generation 
changes in the charac- 
ter of the endosperm 
as have just been cited 
constitute the phe- 
nomenon known as 
xenia. 

214. Development 
of the ear. — When 
the ear has developed 
to the stage at which 
fertihzation takes 
place, it consists of a 
spike (the cob) bear- 
ing the pistillate flowers in even numbered rows, and the 
covering or husk. The development of the kernels after 
fertilization takes place completes the formation of the ear. 
The silks at the butt of the ear develop and are pollinated 
first, followed in succession by those at the middle and 
finally at the tip of the ear. For this reason the basal 
kernels develop somewhat in advance of the middle and 
tip kernels. Each developing kernel is fed by a single 
fibro-vascular bundle which extends from the stem between 




Fig. 28. — Cross-section of corn ear look- 
ing toward the base: s, inner surface of 
upper thick glume seen behind the thin 
glume and palets; S, outer surface of 
lower thick glume; F, axes; T, denser 
portion of woody zone; H, depression; 
B, zone with fibro-vascular bundles; 
M, pith. 



172 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

the pith and the woody portion of the cob to the base of 
the kernel. During the early or milk-stage of development 
the kernel is sweet on account of the large amount of sugar 
which has not, as yet, been transformed into starch. Dur- 
ing this early stage large quantities of protein, ash, and 
oil are deposited in the embryo. Later, large quantities 
of sugar, much of which has been held in readiness in the 
stalk, are transferred to, and deposited in the kernels in the 
form of starch. This deposit of starchy material con- 
stitutes the larger part of the endosperm. The bracts 
about the base of the ovary become the chaff of the ma- 
tured cob, while the coverings of the ovule develop into 
the protecting coverings of the kernel (Fig. 28). 



I 



CHAPTER XV 

ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION AND VARIETIES OF 

CORN 

In the course of his early voyage Columbus found Indian 
corn growing on the island of Hayti under the name of 
"Mahiz," a Haytian word from which the name "maize" 
is derived. It is generally held that mahiz, or marisi, 
is an Arawak Indian word of South American origin. 
In England the word "corn" is used in a general sense to 
signify the bread grains whereas in North America it 
applies specifically to Indian corn or maize. 

215. Nativity. — Most authorities who have given 
special study to the geographical origin of Indian corn 
have concluded that it is probably native to Mexico. 
Some early writers have contended that Indian corn was 
cultivated in Europe previously to the discovery of Amer- 
ica, and therefore questioned its American origin. The 
results of careful investigation do not support this con- 
tention. 

There is much evidence in support of Harshberger's 
conclusion that Indian corn is native, in all probability, 
to the high plateau region of central or southern Mexico, 
and that its cultivation originated there. Certain plants 
that are relatives botanically to maize, notably teosinte 
and gama grass, are native to this region. Also Zea 
canina, a type of true maize thought by some to be the 
progenitor of our cultivated maize has been found growing 
wild in this section of Mexico. 

173 



174 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

The date at which maize was first cultivated in Mexico 
is not clear. Harshberger, as a result of his studies of 
maize, concluded that it probably came into cultivation 
in Mexico about the beginning of the Christian era, being 
brought across the Rio Grande about 700 A. D. and reach- 
ing the coast of Maine some time previous to the year 1000. 

In 1492, when Columbus discovered America, ma^ze 
was rather extensively cultivated by the American In- 
dians. After its discovery on the western hemisphere it 
was rapidly introduced into Europe, Africa, China, and 
Asia Minor. 

216. Biological origin. — Our present conclusions re- 
garding the biological origin of maize are based largely 
on a comparative study of the structure of maize and 
its botanically related forms together with a consideration 
of the embryonic development of the maize plant itself. 
Maize belongs to the family Gramineae and to the tribe 
Maydese. The most important distinguishing feature of 
the tribe Maydese is the separation of the staminate flowers 
from the pistillate flowers. Two grasses belonging to this 
tribe and therefore closely related to maize are teosinte 
(Euchlaena mexicana) and gama-grass {Tripsacum dacty- 
loides) (Fig. 29). Both of these grasses are of common 
occurrence in the high plateau region of central and south- 
ern Mexico — the region in which corn is thought to have 
originated. 

Teosinte is a coarse annual grass growing from 8 to 12 
feet high, adapted to a rich soil and a long growing season 
of moist hot weather. As a rule it does not mature seed 
north of Mexico. Teosinte is a branched plant bearing 
a terminal tassel on which only staminate flowers are 
produced, and lateral branches from the axils of the leaves, 
each bearing a terminal tassel on which only pistillate 



ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, VARIETIES OF CORN 175 



flowers are produced. As the lateral branches are much 
shortened and are surrounded by a husk-like structure, 
Montgomery points out that "it is only a step in the 









Fui. 29. — Illustrating the relationship between 
gama-grass, teosinte, and corn: 1, gama-grass; 
2, teosinte; 3, corn; 4, floral parts of gama-grass: 
a, tassel; b, spike of tassel, bearing staminate 
flowers on upper part, c, staminate flower; d, pis- 
tillate flower; 5, floral parts of teosinte; 6, floral 
parts of corn. 

production of an ear of maize, from teosinte by a develop- 
ment of the central spike of the lateral tassel into an ear." 
Gama-grass at a distance bears close resemblance to 
maize. The average height is from 5 to 10 feet, the leaves 



176 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

and stems l)eing slenderer than those of maize. As in the 
case of teosinte, gama-grass branches, producing a tassel- 
like structm'e at the top and at the end of each branch. 
Each tassel produces both staminate and pistillate flowers, 
the former being borne on the lower part of the tassel and 
the latter on the upper part. 

The general opinion is that either teosinte, gama-grass, 
or some rather closely related grass is the progenitor of 
maize. 

"It is assumed that wild maize was a branched plant 
containing perfect flowers (both carpels and stamens) 
on the terminal tassel and, also, at the end of the branches. 
Since the plant is wind fertilized and the pollen tends to 
fall, the carpellate flowers in the terminal tassel would be 
less perfectly pollenized than those on the branches below. 
The pollen on the branches would tend to fall on the 
ground, thus being of little value. The plants which had 
the greatest development of carpels on the branches and 
of stamens in the terminal tassel would tend to sur\ave. 
As the end of a branch became laden with a collection of 
grains (ear) the short branch would best hold the ear 
from drooping. Thus the culm of the branch (now called 
the shank) has become a succession of nodes with shorter 
internodes. Each node still bears the sheath of the leaf, 
the blade being reduced in size or aborted. This collection 
of leaf-sheaths is called the husk. The branch has been 
telescoped." ^ 

There is a slight difference of opinion as to the character 
of the modification resulting in the formation of an ear 
of maize from the original tassel-like structure. The 
generally accepted theory is that the ear is the result of 
the fusing or growing together of four or more of the pistil- 
1 Hunt, " Cereals in America," p. 145. 



ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, VARIETIES OF CORN 177 

late spikes produced in the tassel of the lower branches. 
As each spike is made up of a double row of spikelets, 
-each spikelet beine; two-flowered with the lower flower 
abortive, the result of such a fusion would be an ear having 
distinctly paired rows of grains. This we find to be a 
characteristic of an, ear of maize. The cob is supposed to 
have been formed from the growing together of the rachi 
of the spikes. 

Observations made by Montgomery have led him to 
think that "instead of the ear originating from the fusion 
of a number of tw:o-rowed spikes, it developed directly 
from the central spike of some tassel-like structure similar 
to the well known corn tassel." Montgomery states 
further "that corn and teosinte may have had a common 
origin, and that in the process of evolution the cluster of 
pistillate spikes in teosinte were developed from the lateral 
branches of a tassel-like structure, while the corn ear 
developed from the central spike. It is probable that the 
progenitor of these plants was a large, much-branched 
grass, each branch being terminated by a tassel-like 
structure bearing hermaphrodite flowers." 

It has been suggested by Harshberger that our culti- 
vated maize is of hybrid origin because of the fact that 
fertile hybrids of teosinte and maize are known and de- 
scribed by Watson as Zea canina. As a speculative ex- 
planation of such an origin it is suggested that the starting 
point was a "sport of teosinte; which then crossed itself 
with the normal ancestor, producing our cultivated corn." 
Zea canina is found growing wild in Mexico. 

CLASSIFICATION OF MAIZE 

According to Sturtevant, maize may l)e classed into the 
following "agricultural species": 



178 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



217. Zea Mays canina. — A species of maize found 

growing wild in Mexico and thought to be a fourth or fifth 

generation produced by the crossing of teosinte and the 

black Mexican corn. The plants of this species are 
branched, each plant producing nu- 
merous small ears in the leaf axils of 
the lateral branches. The ears range 
from 2 to 4 inches in length and pro- 
duce from 4 to 8 
rows of kernels. 

218. Zea Mays 
tunicata, or pod- 
corn. — An uncom- 
mon species, char- 
acterized by the fact 
that each kernel is 
inclosed in a pod or 
husk and the ear 
inclosed in husks 
(Fig. 30). The ker- 
nels are rather small 

and occur in many colors such as red, 

white, yellow, and variegated as well as 

in different forms such as sweet, dent, 

and flint. Pod-corn is supposed by 

some to be a primitive type bred from 

a wild grass of Central America by a 

race of people called Mayas who once 

inhabited the regions now known as 

Yucatan and Guatemala. This surmise, however, seems 

to lack definite evidence. 

219. Zea Mays everata, the pop-corns (Figs. 31, 32). — 

The varieties of this species are characterized by the fact 




Fig. 30. — A small 
ear of the pod- 
corn group. 




Fig. 31. — An ear of 
White rice pop-corn. 



ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, VARIETIES OF CORN 179 

that the kernels "turn inside out" when heated, and by the 
small size of the kernels and ears. There is also an exces- 
sive proportion of the corneous endosperm, which gives the 
property of "popping." An explanation of the property 
of "popping" lies in the fact that heat causes the explosion 
of contained moisture, and the endosperm being so dense 
that the expansion cannot be taken up on the inside, the 
endosperm is caused to evert about the embryo and 
hull, forming a white fluffy mass. In kernels possessing 




Fig. 32. — An ear of White Pearl pop-corn. 

an excess of white endosperm, the moisture in the corneous 
portion explodes without everting the endosperm. 

Although many varieties of pop-corn exist they easily 
fall into two groups, namely, rice pop-corn, in which the 
kernels are pointed at the top, and pearl pop-corn, in which 
the kernels are rounded at the top much as in flint corn. 
Ears of pop-corn vary in length from 1}/^ or 2 inches in 
Tom Thumb to 6 or 7 inches in certain varieties of the 
pearl group. 

220. Zea Mays indurata, the flint corns (Fig. 33). — 
Characterized by the inclosure of the starchy endosperm 
in a corneous endosperm. This outer arrangement of the 
hard part of the endosperm prevents denting, although 
a slight dent is sometimes visible owing to the fact that the 
layer of corneous endosperm is thin on the top of the 



180 



FIELB CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



kernel. Plants of flint corn 
vary in height from 4 to 9 feet. 
The ears are from 6 to 14 
inches long with from 8 to 16 
rows of kernels, 8 rows being 
the most common. The kernels 
of most varieties are either 
white or golden orange in color, 
hard, smooth and somewhat 
oval shaped. Flint varieties 
are adapted to regions with 
short growing seasons in which 
the dent varieties will not ma- 
ture. 

221. Zea Mays indentata, 
the dent corns (Fig. 34). — 
In this group the corneous en- 
dosperm occurs at the sides of 
the kernel, the starchy reserve 
food extending to the summit. 
As the kernel matures the soft 
starchy part dries and shrinks, 
forming the characteristic in- 
dentation in the top of the ker- 
nel. In the flint corns the 
occurrence of the corneous en- 
dosperm over the top of the 
kernel, as well as at the sides, 
prevents the formation of an 
indentation. In dent corns the 
plant varies in height from 5 
to 18 feet; the ears are from 
6 to 12 inches long, having from 8 to 24 rows of kernels 




Fig. 33. — A good ear of the 
flint corn group; variety, 
Ninety Day Yellow. 



ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, VARIETIES OF CORN 181 

to an ear, 14 to 18 being the most common. This is the 
type commonly euUivated throughout the cotton-belt and 
in fact throughout the entire United States excepting 
in the extreme northeastern section where the short 
growing season makes necessary the growth of flint 
corns. 

222. Zea Mays amylacea, the soft corns. — Charac- 
terized by the absence of corneous material in the endo- 
sperm. The ear and kernels are somewhat similar in shape 
to the flint corns. There is no indentation. The soft 
corns seem to prefer the warm dry climates, being grown 




Fig. 34. — A good car of dent corn; variety, Woodburn White dent. 

largely in Mexico and adjacent regions. This type was 
extensively grown by the North American Indians, be- 
cause it was more easily crushed between two rocks and 
thus made into flour. 

223. Zea Mays saccharata, the sweet corns (Fig. 35). 
— Characterized by the translucent, horny appearance of 
the kernels and their wrinkled, shriveled condition. It is 
thought that the latter character is the result of the rapid 
conversion of the starch into sugar. In outhne the grains 
are usually broadly wedge-shaped with rounded summit. 
Sweet corn is well known as a garden crop and in some 
sections of the United States it furnishes the basis of 



182 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



large canning industries, the canned product being shipped 
to all parts of the world. Most varieties of this type will 
mature within from 70 to 100 days. 

224. Zea Mays amylea-saccharata, a starchy sweet 
corn. Its chief characteristic is that the lower half of 
the kernel is starchy and the upper half horny and trans- 
lucent. This type is not common. 

225. Zea Mays japonica. — A corn sometimes culti- 
vated for ornamental purposes, the leaves being striped, 



:^:£*"^H 






Fig. 35. — An ear of the sweet corn group. 

green and white. The grains are small, resembling pop- 
corn or the small flint types. 

226. Zea Mays hirta. — This corn is found mostly 
in South America and is characterized by the hairy nature 
of the leaves and sheaths. 

227. Varieties. — Several hundred distinct varieties of 
corn are now in existence. So far as known to the author, 
no complete catalogue of corn varieties has been prepared 
within recent years. Sturtevant, in 1898, listed 507 
named varieties and 163 synonyms. Of these 507 varieties 
Sturtevant classed 323 as dent corn, 69 as flint corn, 63 
as sweet corn, 27 as soft corn and 25 as pop-corn. Many 
varieties have come into existence since the publication 
of Sturtevant 's classification. 

The nomenclature of corn varieties, especially in the 



ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, VARIETIES OF CORN 183 

cotton-belt states, is very unsatisfactory. The indiffer- 
ence of farmers toward the improvement of varieties to- 
gether with the natural tendency of different varieties to 
hybridize when grown in close proximity to each other, 
the mixing of names by seed dealers and the modification 
of varieties by environment have somewhat minimized 
the significance that can be attached to varietal names. 

Extensive variety tests conducted by the southern 
experiment stations have shown conclusively that no one 
variety is best suited to all sections of the cotton-belt. 
In the following list are given the names of several leading 
varieties of corn for each cotton-belt state, the names of 
these varieties having been secured from the experiment 
station director or agronomist in each case: 



State 


Variety 


Color of Grain 


Alabama 


Mosby 


W 




Marlboro 


W 




Jackson Red Cob 


W 




Tennessee Red Cob 


W 




Hasting's Prolific 


W 




Davis Poor Land 


W 


Arkansas 


Johnson County White 
Southern Beauty 


W 




W 




Hildreth Yellow Dent 


Y 




Boone County White 


W 




Golden Beauty 


Y 


Georgia ^ 


Marlboro 


W 




Sanders 


W 




Cocke's Prolific 


W 




Boone County White - 


W 




Mosby 


w 


Louisiana 


Yellow Creole 


Y 



' Taken from Duggar's " Southern Field Crops," p. 120. 



184 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT ' 



State 


Vabiety 


Color of Grain 


(La. Corn Growers' 


Stewart's Yel. Dent 


Y 


Assoc. 1915) 


Calhoun Red Cob 


Y and W 




Stewart's White Shoepeg 


W 




Mosby's Prolific 


W 




Easting's Prolific 


W 




Candy's ProHfic 


W 




Sentell's White Dent 


W 


Mississippi 


Cocke's ProUfic 


W 




Mosby 


W 




North Car. ProUfic 


W 




Hasting' s Prolific 


W 




Davis' Poor Land 


W 




Tennessee Red Cob 


W 


North Carolina 


Biggs Seven Ear 


W 




Weekley's Improved 


W 




Goodman's Prolific 


W 




Sanders' Improved 


W 




Cocke's Prolific 


W 


South Carolina 


Marlboro 


W 




Batt's Prolific 


W 




Williamson 


W 




Hasting's ProUfic 


W 




Mosby 


W 




Brunson 


w 




Simons 86% 


w 




Pee Dee 


w 


Tennessee 


Hickory King 


w 




Lewis Prolific 


w 




Albemarle Prolific 


w 




Neal's Paymaster 


w 




Webb's Watson 


'W 




Huffman 


w 




Reid's Yellow Dent 


Y 


Texas 


Thomas ^ 


w 




Mosby 1 


w 




Hastings ^ 


w 



1 ProUfic corns for South and East Texas. 



ORIGIN, CLASSIFICATION, VARIETIES OF CORN 185 



State 


Variety 


Color of Grain 


Texas 


Surcropper 

Strawberry 


W 




R and W 




Chisolm 


W 




Yellow Dent 


Y 


Virginia 


Boone County White 


W 




Collier's Excelsior 


W 




Johnson County White 


W 




Learning 


Y 




Reid's Yellow Dent 


Y 




Virginia Golden Beauty 


Y 



228. Discussion of varieties. — Most of the leading 
varieties o^ corn grown in the cotton-belt belong to the 
prolific type, producing from 175 to 200, or more, ears 
for each hundred plants. The ears are usually small, 
owing to the small size of the cob, and the kernels are 
usually rather long and slender. Some of the important 
proHfic varieties included in the above list are as follows: 



Mosby 

Hasting' s Prolific 
Cocke's Prolific 
Marlboro 



Sanders Improved 

Batt's 

Weekley's Improved 

Lewis Prolific 



Albemarle Prolific 
Biggs' Seven Ear 
Davis' Poor Land 
Neal's Paymaster 



Southern Beauty is a semi-prolific variety. 
The important one-eared varieties are: 



Tennessee Red Cob 
Reid's Yellow Dent 
Golden Beauty 
Boone County White 
Strawberry 



Jackson Red Cob 
HUdreth's Yellow Dent 
Calhoun Red Cob 
Huffman 



Almost all varieties are valuable for silage making. 
The following have been especially recommended for this 
purpose : 



186 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Cocke's Prolific Hildreth Yellow Dent 

Weekley's Improved Goodman's Prolific 

Of the varieties of sweet corn grown in the cotton-belt 
the following are most important: 

Stowell's Evergreen Country Gentleman 

Adams's Extra Early Black Mexican Sweet Corn. 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE BREEDING OF CORN 

Under any given set of conditions the yield of corn is 
conditioned on two sets of forces. The first and most 
commonly recognized set of forces is external to the plant 
and consists of the plant's environment. The second set 
resides within the plant itseK and is commonly expressed 
as heredity. 

Certain factors of environment, such as temperature, 
light and rainfall, are beyond our control. Others, such as 
the ravages of insect enemies and parasitic fungi are par- 
tially controllable; whereas tillage and the supplying of 
food to the plant are almost wholly under control. The 
two last named factors have received widespread atten- 
tion from corn growers. The factors of heredity have been 
almost wholly disregarded. The possibility of improving 
corn by breeding has long been recognized, and in recent 
years many evidences of such improvement have been 
furnished in this country by the agricultural experiment 
stations, state departments of agriculture, the national 
Department of Agriculture and other agencies, as well as 
by many growei's of commercial seed. 

229. The significance of type in com breeding. — 
Corn breeders in the past have laid much emphasis on the 
value of selecting seed with a definite type of plant in view. 
For example, directions for selecting are often given with 
reference to the type of ear as regards its length and cir- 
cumference as well as depth and shape of kernels. Also 

187 



188 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



the height of plant, height at which ear is borne, position 
of ear, and the like, are usually given careful consideration 

in breeding corn. It 
nevertheless remains 
that yield is the 
primary object in corn 
breeding, and if each 
year seed is carefully 
selected and propa- 
gated from the highest 
yielding plants or 
progeny rows as the 
case may be, all other 
characters of the plant 
will naturally adjust 
themselves under the 
existing conditions in 
such a way that ulti- 
mately the most pro- 
ductive type of plant 
will follow. That no 
visible characters of the 
corn ear are indicative 
of high yielding power 
has been demonstrated 
many times by breed- 
ers and this fact is 
clearly summarized by 
Hartley as follows: 
''A careful tabulation of yields as compared with other 
ear characters covering six years' work with four varie- 
ties, embracing in all more than 1000 ear-to-row tests of 
production, indicates that no visible characters of appar- 




FiG. 36. — Showing the average angle of 
declination of corn ears after five 
generations of breeding for erect ears. 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 



189 



ently good seed ears are indicative of high yielding 
power." 

The Illinois experiments in breeding for high-ear and 
low-ear types demon- 
strate that the height 
at which the ear is 
borne on the plant 
bears no definite rela- 
tion to yield, the same 
conclusion being war- 
ranted when the angle 
of the ear was con- 
sidered. 

Selection to modify 
certain characters of 
the plant, even though 
yield is not affected, is 
often justified. For 
example, in the South 
many varieties of corn 
have a tendency to 
bear the ears quite 
high on the stalk and 
in an upright position. 
Although neither of 
these characters ma- 
terially affects yield, 
seed should be selected 
with the idea of cor- 
recting these defects, as 
in the one case ease of harvesting is facilitated and 
in the other the quality of the grain is improved, 
from the fact that a drooping ear sheds water bet- 




FiG. 37. — Showing the average angle of 
declination of corn ears after five gen- 
erations of breeding for declining ears. 



190 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

ter than one borne in an upright position (Figs. 36, 
37). 

The type assumed by high-yielding strains of corn varies 
in different regions. Therefore the ideal type for one set 
of conditions will vary from that growing under conditions 
markedly different. The acclimated high-yielding strains 
have adjusted themselves to their surroundings, and corn 
breeders should select their seed from typical plants that 
are in harmony with natural conditions. 

230. Defects in southern varieties. — The most serious 
defect possessed by the bulk of the corn planted in the 
south is the lack of those hereditary qualities such as vigor 
and prolificacy that make for higher yield. In addition to 
these there are a number of qualities which may or may 
not affect yield, but which, because of their relation to the 
ease of harvesting, the ability of the plants to resist storm, 
or the quality of the grain produced, should receive careful 
attention by corn growers. The most important of these 
qualities are: (1) lower position of ear on the plant; 
(2) strength, or power of the plant to stand up; (3) tend- 
ency for the mature ears to turn downward; (4) more com- 
plete covering of the tip by shucks; (5) a decrease in the 
size of the plant in some varieties. All of the above qual- 
ities, including vigor and prolificacy, have been shown to 
be hereditary and are therefore under the control of the 
corn breeder. 

231. Barren plants. — The tendency in corn to pro- 
duce stalks without ears is generally held to be hereditary, 
although it is to a large degree dependent on climatic condi- 
tions. That this tendency in corn is to an extent hereditary 
is shown by the fact that seed corn that has been fertilized 
by the pollen from barren stalks often gives rise to an in- 
creased number of useless plants. De Vries makes reference 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 191 

to the fact that in Illinois on farms where the number of 
barren plants has reached as high as about 60 per cent, it 
has been reduced by five years of selection to about ten or 
fifteen per cent. De Vries also finds that "some ears pro- 
duce more than twelve times as many barren stalks as 
others." Hartley found that the destruction of barren 
stalks in the field from which seed was saved reduced the 
percentage of barren stalks in the succeeding crop from 
8.11 to 3.43. While it is of the utmost importance that 
barren stalks be destroyed before they produce pollen, it 
is highly probable that this is only a partial remedy. 
Strains or varieties of corn that are marked in this defi- 
ciency should be discarded as a whole as in such cases the 
propensity to barrenness is in all probability possessed by 
the fertile plants as well as by the infertile. It is often 
difficult to detect barren stalks before pollen is produced 
and for this reason all poor stalks in the seed plot should 
be destroyed before the pollen is matured. 

232. Tendency to sucker. — The removal of suckers 
from the corn plant is common with farmers throughout 
the southern states, the assumption being that they sap 
the energies of the main plant by robbing it of food and 
water without giving a compensating return in grain. 
The bulk of the evidence is against this practice. Williams, 
of the North Carolina Station, as a result of three years' 
work with more than fifty varieties summarizes his work 
as follows: 

"By assigning a value of 80 cents a bushel for grain and 
S8.00 a ton for stover, it has been found that, on an average 
of three years' results on the better grade of land, there 
was a diminishing by 17.7 per cent of the combined value 
of the grain and stover by the removal of suckers from the 
stalks." 



192 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



The results of two years' work by the Mississippi 
Experiment Station on the value of suckering corn are 
shown below: 

Table 10. Showing Results of Two Years' Suckering Corn 

1910 AND 1911 





1910 


1911 


When Suckered 


Cost of 
labor for 
suckering 
one acre 


Yield in 
bushels 
per acre 


Cost of 
labor for 
suckering 
one acre 


Yield in 
bushels 
per acre 


Suckered 4 feet high 
Suckered 6 feet high 
Unsuckered 


$.96 
.96 


29.5 
29.4 
37.8 


$1.00 
1.00 


38.5 
38.0 
30.5 



Ricks, in discussing these results, says: "Pulling the suck- 
ers from corn has never given us any increased yields. The 
expense in doing this work should be put into better and 
more frequent cultivations." 

233. Methods of improving com. — Three methods 
are employed in the improvement of corn. They are 
(1) selection, including both mass selection and pedigree 
selection, (2) hybridization followed by selection, and 
(3) acclimatization. The method of improving corn by 
hybridization is too technical and expensive to be of gen- 
eral value to the farmer. This work should be left for the 
skilled breeder, the farmer giving his attention to the im- 
provement of his corn by selection. 

SELECTION 

Systematic selection is the most important factor in the 
improvement of corn. The success of this method depends 
upon the ability of the breeder to recognize the most 



rilE BREEDING OF CORN 193 

productive plants and to propagate them without the in- 
termixture of blood from inferior sorts. 

234. Start with the best variety. — The initial step 
in the improvement of corn is the selection of the best 
variety for the existing conditions. It is a waste of time 
and money to attempt the breeding or improvement of 
varieties not well adapted to the soil or climate. The 
value of any variety is conditioned on its yield, quality, 
and adaptation. The adaptation of the variety is really 
the deciding factor that determines whether it may be 
successfully gi'own in any locality. The work of the 
agricultural experiment stations has demonstrated beyond 
question that corn varieties differ as regards climatic 
adaptation and therefore differ in point of yield. Some 
tests reported by the Alabama Station at Auburn a few 
years ago showed differences in the yield of corn varieties 
as high as 160 per cent. The best variety can be selected 
only as a result of a carefully conducted variety test. 

235. Mass selection. — The simplest method of im- 
proving corn is by mass selection. In following this method 
the grower selects from the field a large number of ears 
from plants that conform nearest to the ideal type. The 
next year all of this selected seed is mixed and planted. 
From the crop thus produced the best individuals are 
again selected, the seed mixed and planted the succeeding 
year. This method of selection is followed year after 
year. Mass selection does not recognize a difference be- 
tween the individuals selected as regards their ability to 
produce, as by this method a performance record for 
single plants, such as is kept in pedigree selection, is 
impossible. 

236. Value of mass selection. — Rapid improvement 
by mass selection is not possible. However, if the breeder 



194 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

keeps clearly in mind a mental picture of his ideal type, 
and in making his selections from year to year does not 
deviate from this type, there is no question but that a 
gradual improvement can be accomplished. The fact 
that many of our oldest and best varieties of corn have 
been produced by this method is evidence of its value 
when properly conducted. For example, in 1825, J. L. 
Leaming, of Wilmington, Ohio, began selecting the best 
ears of his field for his seed corn. He mixed the seed and 
planted it with no attempt to study the progeny of individ- 
ual ears. By this method he finally improved his strain 
to the degree that it became widely known and was im- 
ported into Illinois. There the selection was continued by 
the same method followed by Leaming. At present, the 
Leaming variety is considered one of the best yielding 
sorts for that state. James Riley, of Thorntown, Indiana, 
working with the ordinary white corn of Indiana, selected 
seed with the idea of diminishing the number of barren 
stalks and of ears of minor value in his field. The result 
of his work is the famous Boone County White, probably 
the most popular variety of corn in Indiana and Illinois. 
Reid's Yellow Dent, a variety widely grown in the corn 
belt, was produced by mass selection. The objection to 
this method is the slowness with which improvement is 
accomplished. 

237. Pedigree selection. — It has been found that 
two ears of corn of similar appearance, and coming from 
plants of apparently equal value, will not necessarily 
produce progeny of equal value. It often happens that 
one ear will produce from 20 to 40 per cent more than the 
other when used as seed. In other words, the hereditary 
qualities of the two ears may differ markedly, and since 
the aim of corn breeding is the improvement of hereditary 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 195 

qualities, the most rapid improvement can be accom- 
plished only when the selection is based on a performance 
record of the different individuals. An ear of corn may be 
of excellent shape and size, with straight rows and perfect 
butt and tip, with well-shaped kernels of the most desir- 
able structure, but such an ear is of little value as seed 
corn unless it possesses the power of transmitting these 
qualities to its progeny. Pedigree selection differs from 
mass selection in that after the first mother ears are se- 
lected a record is kept on the performance of each ear or 
its progeny. It distinguishes between those plants that 
were good because of favorable environment and those 
that were good because of inherent productiveness. The 
inherent productiveness of an ear can be ascertained by 
no other means than pedigree selection, or the separate 
culture and exact comparative trial of the generation 
grown from its kernels. 

238. The initial choice of ears in the fields. — The 
foundation stock should be selected in the field. In the 
cotton-belt yield should be the primary consideration 
in the making of this selection. Early in the fall shortly 
before the time of harvesting, the breeder should go 
through his fields and mark the stalks of superior quality. 
If it is desired to correct some defect of the plant, or ear, 
such as the height of ear on stalk or the angle of the ear, 
these points should be kept in mind, and the selections 
made accordingly; but at no time should yield be sacrificed 
for other qualities. It is not necessary to adhere closely 
to one type of ear. In fact several types may be selected 
provided they are sound and well matured and come from 
high yielding plants. It is usually advisable to select 
from plants that produce more than one ear. This is 
especially true in the breeding of the prolific varieties. 



196 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

At least 100 ears should be selected. A still greater number 
will be better as exceptional ears are rather scarce. 

239. Selecting the breeding plot. — The comparative 
trial of the progeny of the ears selected in the field is made 
on a selected plot, usually called the breeding plot. As 
the value of this test depends on being able to make an 
accurate comparison of the yields from the different ears, 
it is extremely important that the plot selected be of as 
uniform productiveness throughout as possible. The 
soil need not be rich, but should be of average productive- 
ness, and if possible should be sufficiently isolated to pre- 
vent the selected seed from becoming contaminated by 
pollen from unbred varieties. As pollen is often carried a 
quarter of a mile by the wind, the isolation of the breeding 
plot is often impossible, and other precautions, mentioned 
in the succeeding paragraph, must be resorted to. The 
breeding plot should be sufficiently large to admit of 
planting at least 100 rows of at least 100 hills in length. 

240. Second year. — By means of a marker or a 
small plow the breeding plot should be laid off in checks 
S}/2 feet apart. Next, the kernels of each selected ear are 
planted in groups, the first row being planted from the 
kernels of one ear, the second row containing the progeny 
of a second ear and so on until the 100 ears are planted. 
The usual method is to carry the ear, and shell off the 
grains as needed. Three or four grains should be planted 
in each hill to insure a stand. Later the corn should be 
thinned to one stalk in a hill. 

As it is practically impossible to secure an absolutely 
uniform plot of land for this work, it is well to omit every 
fifth row in planting the select ears, these rows to be im- 
mediately planted with a uniform lot of corn. The yield 
of these rows that are planted from uniform seed will 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 197 

serve as a check against the inequaUties in the productive- 
ness of the soil comprising the breeding plot. 

Where isolation is impossible, the breeding plot should 
be surrounded by three or four rows planted with seed from 
the selected ears which remain after the breeding plot has 
been planted. Conditions will be made still more ideal 
if tliis breeding plot is situated in the midst of a large 
field of a selected strain of corn of the same variety. This 
latter precaution will be impossible during the first season 
of the breeding, but from the third year it will always be 
practicable. Such an arrangement prevents the seed 
plot from being contaminated by pollen from unbred 
sorts. 

241. Cultivation. — Ordinary cultivation should be 
given the breeding plot, care being exercised to see that 
all rows are treated alike. It must be remembered that 
the results of pedigree selection will be meaningless unless 
uniform conditions are maintained throughout the entire 
breeding plot. 

242. Detasseling. — In breeding corn by pedigree 
selection, the conditions are such as to favor inbreeding 
and close breeding, either of which is likely to decrease 
the vigor of the plant. To avoid this the practice of 
detasseling every other row or the alternate half of every 
row and saving seed only from the best detasseled rows 
is reconmiended. The method of detasseling consists 
merel}^ in pulling the tassels out before pollen is produced, 
and bears no injury to the plant. The field must be gone 
over at least three times. In addition to pulling the tassels 
from the plants in the rows that are to furnish the seed, it 
is important that all inferior plants in the sire rows be 
detasseled. The methods employing the principle of 
detasseling to avoid inbreeding vary somewhat with 



198 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

different breeders. The most important methods fol- 
low: 

(1) Each year alternate rows in the breeding plot are 
detasseled and seed yields ascertained from these rows 
only. This is the method in most common use. 

(2) The first year only a part of each ear is used in plant- 
ing the breeding plot and no detasseling is done. By 
harvesting and weighing the grain from each row the 
breeder ascertains which were the most productive ears 
that were used in the planting of the breeding plot. The 
next season the remnants of the best ears only are planted 
in progeny rows, a number of which are detasseled. The 
advantage sought by this method is the elimination of 
the poor-yielding strains so that all fertilization will come 
from productive strains. The method is continued year 
after year, select ears being used from the breeding plot 
or the general crop for the ear-row test. 

Hugo de Vries Stresses the importance of the plot system 
in corn breeding as a means of maintaining the purity 
of select strains. His views are given in the following 
quotation: "In the system of breeding in plots, the prog- 
eny of each selected ear constitutes a square by itself, 
and thus at least for the central 'stalks a high degree of 
pure fertilization by the other members of the same family 
is insured. The observed fact of the high degree of in- 
dividuality of each family, derived from one single ear, 
seems to point out the desirability of this plot system for 
the first year of trial on the breeding plot, even if the row 
system should be kept as the most convenient for the 
subsequent years of selection." ^ 

243. Harvesting. — Late in the fall when the corn 
from all of the progeny rows has become thoroughly 
^ Hugo de Vries, " Plant Breeding," p. 137. 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 



199 



mature the detasseled rows should be harvested separately 
and the corn from each row weighed. From the ten or 
twelve highest yielding rows, 100 of the best ears should 
be selected for planting the breeding plot next year. The 
remainder of the seed from the best yielding rows should 
be used for planting an increase plot or for planting the 
general crop. 

244. Third year. — The breeding plot should be 
planted as before with the best selected 100 ears; the 




Fig. 38. — Showing effect of five generations of breeding for high ears 
and low ears. The white tape marks the position of the ears on the 
stalks. 

alternate rows should be detasseled and seed saved again 
from the best detasseled rows. The remainder of the 
selected seed should be used for planting an increase 
plot provided it is not sufficient for planting the gen- 
eral crop. The corn produced on the increase plot 
should be used for planting the general crop the fourth 
year. 

One should continue this system of breeding, maintain- 
ing each year the breeding plot, the increase plot, and the 
general crop which is always planted from the improved 
seed grown on the increase plot. With this treatment the 



200 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



corn should not only maintain its excellence, but should 
improve rapidly from year to year. 

245. Breeding for high and low ears (Fig. 38). — In 
1902 the Illinois Experiment Station began selecting two 
strains of Leaming corn, one with ears borne high on the 
stalk and the other with ears borne low. After six years of 
pedigree breeding, the basis of selection being the height 
of the ear, the following results were obtained: 

Table 11. Showing Averages of Crops Produced in Corn 
Breeding, for High Ears and for Low Ears ' 





Height 


of Ear 


Height op Plant 


Year 


High-ear Plot 


Low-ear Plot 


High-ear Plot 


Low-ear Plot 




Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


Inches 


1903 


56.4 


42.8- 


113.9 


102.5 


1904 


50.3 


38.3 


106.2 


97.4 


190.^ 


63.3 


41.6 


128.4 


106.5 


1906 


56.6 


25.5 


116.3 


86.0 ■ 


1907 


72.4 


33.2 


130.4 


99.7 


1908 


57.3 


23.1 


114.0 


79.3 



246. Breeding for composition. — In 1896, Hopkins, 
of the University of Illinois, began the breeding of corn 
with the idea of changing its chemical content. Seed of 
White Illinois corn was selected for four different purposes : 
high and low protein content and high and low oil content. 
These different strains were selected by a mechanical 
examination of the ears. This method is based upon the 
fact that the kernel of corn consists of several distinct, 
easily recognized parts of quite different chemical com- 
position. These are (1) the horny endosperm in which the 
protein is mainly produced, (2) the starchy endosperm 
1 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 132, 1909. 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 



201 



which is low in protein and rich in starch, and (3) the 
f>orni which contains from 80 to 85 per cent of the total 
oil content of the kernel. Keeping these facts in mind one 
will readily see that by selecting ears whose kernels con- 
tain more than the average proportion of horny endosperm, 
one will secure high-protein ears. Likewise by selecting 
ears whose kernels contain germs larger than the average, 
one will secure high-oil ears. The results of ten years' 
pedigree breeding for high and low protein content and 
high and low oil content by the Illinois Experiment Station 
are summarized in the following table: 

Table 12. Showing Results of Ten Generations of Breeding 
Corn for Increase and Decrease of Protein and Oil ^ 



Year 


High Pro- 
tein Crop, 
Per Cent 


Low Pro- 
tein Crop, 
Per Cent 


Differ- 
ence 


HlOH-OlL 

Crop, 
Per Cent 


Low-OiL 

Crop, 
Per Cent 


Differ- 
ence 


1896 


10.92 


10.92 




4.70 


4.70 




1897 


11.10 


10.55 


0.55 


4.73 


4,. 06 


0.67 


1898 


11.05 


10.55 


0.50 


5.15 


3.99 


1.16 


1899 


11.46 


9.86 


1.60 


5.64 


3.82 


1.82 


1900 


12.32 


9.34 


2.98 


6.12 


3.57 


g.55 


1901 


14.12 


10.04 


4.08 


6.09 


3.43 


2.66 


1902 


12.34 


8.22 


4.12 


6.41 


3.02 


3.39 


1903 


13.04 


8.62 


4.42 


6.50 


2.97 


3.53 


1904 


15.03 


9.27 


5.76 


6.97 


2.89 


4.08 


1905 


14.72 


8.57 


6.15 


7.29 


2.58 


4.71 


1906 


14.26 


8.64 


5.62 


7.37 


2.66 


4.71 



247. Other effects of breeding for composition. — It 

was found that the continued selection of corn for high 
protein resulted in the production of ears averaging some- 
what smaller than the low-protein ears, the number of 
kernels also averaging "slightly less on the typical high- 

1 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 128, 1908. 



202 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



protein ear," Likewise the high-oil selection resulted in a 
smaller type of ear than was produced in the low-oil strain. 
In order to determine whether or not breeding for com- 
position affects materially the productiveness of corn the 
IlUnois Station has taken, every year since the sixth gen- 
eration, seed from each of the four breeding plots and 
planted it in the station variety test plots where it is 
"given conditions of soil and culture as uniform as pos- 
sible for securing comparable results." The results of this 
test are given below: 

Table 13. Showing Yields of "Illinois" Strains in Variety 
Test Plots ^ 



Year 



HlOH-PRO- 
TEIN 

Strain 

Bu. PER A. 



Low-pro- 
tein 
Strain 
Bu. PER A. 



HlOH-OIL 

Strain 
Bd. per a. 



Low-oil 

Strain 

Bu. per a. 



Standard Variety 
Used as Check 



1903 
1904 
1905 

1906 



27.3 
32.1 
56.6 

65.1 



37.7 
55.5 
60.7 

73.2 



32.7 
41.9 
58.4 

66.3 



41.3 
40.5 
58.1 

83.2 



40.9 Boone Co. White 

53.7 " 

68.4 Silver Mine 

|75.7 " 

[ 87 . 9 Learning 



It will be noticed that the lowest yield has in every case 
been produced by the high-protein corn and Smith of the 
University of Illinois in discussing these results says: "It 
seems a high-protein content and the highest productivity 
do not go together." 

248. Objects of breeding for composition. — The 
reasons for attempting to change the composition of corn 
by breeding are briefly summarized as follows: 

(1) Protein is the most expensive animal nutrient. 
Corn, because of its economical production is one of the 
cheapest of American food stuffs. It is thought that stock 
1 lU. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 128, 1908. 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 203 

feeders will profit greatly as a result of increasing the 
protein content of corn as it will enable them to dispense 
with the purchase of considerable quantities of more ex- 
pensive feeding stuffs. 

(2) On the other hand, the manufacturers are increasing 
their demands for those products derived from the starch 
of corn such as, alcohol, gum, glucose, dextrine and syrup. 
As decreasing the protein-content of corn increases the per- 
centage of starch present, there is a demand for a low- 
protein corn. 

(3) Corn oil has recently found a wide commercial use 
and there is now an actual demand for a corn of high-oil 
content. 

(4) The object of breeding corn for a low-oil content is 
found in the fact that "in feeding swine, the oil in the 
corn tends to produce a soft, flabby quality of flesh which 
is very undesirable, especially for our export trade where 
the demand of the market fs for a hard, firm product." 

HYBRIDIZATION 

249. Objects of hybridization. — The readiness with 
which corn hybridizes and the ease with which the plant 
is manipulated in artificial crossing have served greatly to 
stimulate the breeders' interest and effort in this method of 
corn improvement. In pursuing this method the breeder 
has in mind two important objects of practical value. 
These are (1) the recombining of the characters possessed 
by the parent plants so as to produce a progeny of in- 
creased value; (2) securing increased vigor and productive- 
ness thereby augmenting the yield. In addition to' these 
objects of immediate practical value the hybridization of 
corn yields interesting results of purely scientific value re- 
lating to the hereditary lavs governing plant growth. 



204 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

250. Degrees of relationship among com plants. — It 
is possible to have several degrees of relationship among 
corn plants. These may be summarized as follows: 

1. Inbreeding, occurring when the pollen from a plant 
fertilizes the ovules of the same plant. 

2. Close breeding, occurring when the pollen of a plant 
fertilizes the ovules of a sister plant, or those of a plant 
that has grown from the kernels of the same ear. 

3. Narrow breeding, occurring when pollen from a plant 
fertilizes the ovules of a plant not closely related but of the 
same variety. 

4. Broad breeding, occurring when the pollen from a 
plant fertilizes the ovules of a plant of a different variety, 
or occurring when the pollen from a plant fertilizes the 
ovules of a plant of a different group, as between dent and 
flint corn. 

251. The transmission of characters — Mendel's 
law. — Inheritance in plants may be studied by two 
methods: (1) by the statistical method of considering 
plants and their offspring collectively; (2) by the analytical 
method of studying the separate characters and their 
modes of transmission. The present conception of plants is 
that they are composed of separately heritable units known 
as "unit-characters." Examples of such unit-characters 
in corn are: the color of the grain, cob, stem or husks; the 
character of the endosperm; the height of the plant; sus- 
ceptibility or immunity to disease, and the lilvc. The law 
governing the transmission of such unit-characters from 
parent to offspring was first discovered by Gregor Mendel, 
an Austrian monk, in 1865, and I'ediscovered by de Vries 
and others in 1900, and is now known as "Mendel's law 
of hybrids." The manner in which the splitting up and 
redistribution of parental characters occurs in hybrids 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 



205 



accoixling to Mendel's law, may be best understood by the 
following simple illustration: 

If pure yellow corn be crossed with pure white corn the 
result will be a hybrid containing both characters, yellow 
and white. In this hybrid corn, however, all of the kernels 
will appear yellow because of the fact that in corn the 
character yellow is dominant over white and hence masks 
the white color. In this case white is said to be recessive. 
A plant produced from this hybrid seed will produce pollen 
grains one-half of which will represent yellow corn and 
one-half white corn. The same is true with regard to the 
ovaries. While the plant is hybrid, the sexual elements 
remain pure. When fertilization takes place, whether 
it be self-fertilization or close-fertilization, four different 
combinations of male and female elements are possible as 
shown below: 



Combinations of Germ-cells 



Character of Progeny 



Yellow X Yellow 

Yellow X White. 

White X Yellow 

White X White. 



Yellow (pure as regards color) 
Yellow (hybrid as regards " ) 
Yellow (hybrid as regards " ) 
White (pure as regards " ) 



All of the kernels resulting from the union of yellow X 
white and white X yellow germ-cells will appear yellow 
because of the dominance of that color. The kernels re- 
sulting from the union of the germ-cells yellow X yellow 
will show the yellow color because in this combination the 
potentiality of white is entirely absent. The white color 
will be apparent following the combination white X white 
because here the potentiality of yellow is not present to 
mask it. We will therefore have on each self-fertilized 
hybrid ear three yellow kernels to one white kernel. Of 



206 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

all of the yellow kernels produced on such an ear, one- 
third will be pure yellow and two-thirds will be hybrid as 
regards color. All of the white kernels will be pure as re- 
gards color. 

252. Dominant qualities in com hybrids. — We have 
seen that according to Mendel's law opposite qualities of 
parents are not blended in the hybrid, but are inherited 
separately, the individual descendants showing only one 
of these characters. According to this law the dominant 
character shows in the first-generation hybrid to the ex- 
clusion of the other. The recessive character reappears in 
the second and subsequent generations in one-fourth of the 
progeny, and thereafter remains pure. 

Investigation has shown the following characters in 
corn to be dominant over their opposites: Yellow endo- 
sperm dominant over white endosperm ; starch endosperm 
dominant over sweet endosperm; red pericarp dominant 
over colorless pericarp; flint quality of grains dominant 
over dent; flint quality of grains dominant over sweet; 
dent quality of grains dominant over sweet; blue aleurone 
dominant over colorless aleurone; podded kernels dom- 
inant over naked kernels. 

253. Effects of inbreeding. — Experiments conducted 
by ShulV East,^ Montgomery,^ and Halsted * prove con- 
clusively that the immediate effect of inbreeding corn is to 
decrease the yield. These results indicate that continued 
inbreeding may in some cases produce absolute sterility. 
Corn is sometimes self-fertilized for two or three genera- 
tions by breeders with the object of producing a pure type. 

1 Ann. Rpt. Amer. Breeders Assoc, Vol. VI, 63-72, 1900. 

2 Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 168, 1911. 

» Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta., Ann. Rpt. 1912, 183. 
* N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 170. 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 207 

This is probably the quickest way of producing a pure 
strain of corn. It is accompanied by decreased vigor and 
yield, the greatest decrease usually taking place the first 
year of inbreeding. 

254. Value of crossing varieties. — Various breeders 
have demonstrated that in many cases the immediate 
effect of crossing two different varieties of corn is the pro- 
duction of a hybrid with greater vigor and higher produc- 
tivity than either of the parents. It has been suggested 
by Hayes and East ^ that "the production of corn by util- 
ization of the increased vigor due to a first-generation 
hybrid, is of commercial importance and is worthy of 
further trial." In 1892 Morrow and Hunt at the Illinois 
Experiment Station gave the results of five tests of the 
comparative yields of first-generation hybrids and their 
parents. The table on page 208 gives their results: ^ 

255. Method of producing cross-bred seed. — If the 
farmer or breeder desires to produce each year cross-bred 
seed for planting purposes the following considerations 
should be kept in mind in selecting the parent varie- 
ties: 

(1) The two varieties selected should be of the type 
desired and preferably should have been grown in the same 
locality for a number of years. 

(2) Better results will be secured if comparatively pure 
varieties be selected. Investigations on this point indicate 
that a minimum increase in yield will be secured if the 
parent varieties are "in a state of hybridity" when 
crossed. 

(3) Varieties should be selected that mature at the same 
time. 

' Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 168, 1911. 
■' 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 2.5, 1902. 



208 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



Table 14. Showing Comparative Yields of First-generation 
Hybrids and Their Parents 



Variety 



Burr's White 

Cranberry 

Average 

Cross 

Burr's White 

Helm's Improved 

Average 

Cross 

Leaming 

Golden Beauty 

Average 

Cross 

Champion White Pearl 

Leaming 

Average 

Cross 

Burr's White 

Edmonds 

Average 

Cross 



Bushels of 

Air-dry 

Corn 



64.2 
61.6 
62.9 
67.1 



64.2 
79.2 
71.7 
73.1 



73.6 
65.1 
69.3 
86.2 



60.6 
73.6 
67.1 
76.2 



64.2 
58.4 
61.3 

78.5 



(4) If corn of a uniform color is desired, yellow and white 
varieties should not be crossed as the kernels will not be 
of uniform color in the year following the cross, at which 
time the beneficial results from crossing will be expected. 

The production of crossed seed is not a difficult matter 
provided the seed-plot is not located near other corn fields. 



THE BREEDING OF CORN 209 

The following diagram and quotation (Conn. Exp. Sta., 
Bui. 168) illustrate the method to be used: 
Plat 1. Plat 2. 



CDCDC DDDDD 

Fig. 39. — Diagram showing method of producing cross-bred 
seed of corn. 

"Plant the varieties in alternate rows in Plat 1, all of 
one variety as C being planted in the odd rows and the 
other variety, D, in the even rows. Detassel all of one 
variety as D. This detasseled variety should be also grown 
in another isolated plat, Plat 2. Suppose it is determined 
to use D as the female variety, detassel all of D, The 
following results will then be obtained at harvest: 

Plat 1. D will be cross-pollinated. 

Plat 1, C will be self-pollinated or close-pollinated. 

Plat 2, D will be self-pollinated or close-pollinated. 

"The detasseling should be done before any of the 
pollen is shed and may be very easily accomplished by 
taking firmly hold of the young tassel and giving it a 
steady upward pull. In order to detassel all of a variety 
it will be necessary to go over the field several times at 
intervals of a day or two. It is important to have all of 
the variety detasseled before the shedding of its pollen. 



210 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

If the varieties differ in date of tasseling it is recommended 
that the variety which tassels first be used for the female 
parent, as the silks are receptive, as a rule, for a longer time 
than during the shedding of the pollen. If the varieties 
do not differ in the date of maturity, seed may be obtained 
by the following plan which will necessitate the using of 
only one plat. To illustrate by the use of the diagram 
for Plat 1. Reserve some seed of C; detassel all of C this 
year. On the following year use the reserved seed of C 
and the open pollinated seed of D for the seed-plot, using 
D this year for the female parent and reserving enough of 
D for the following year." 



CHAPTER XVII 

SOIL AND CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS OF CORN 

Each crop, according to its physiological requirements, 
is adapted to make its best growth on a particular soil 
and under a particular climate. The range of conditions 
under which a given crop may be profitably grown is more 
or less limited. It is wider for corn than for any other 
cereal. Corn is grown in every state and territory in the 
United States except Alaska, and in both Mexico and 
Canada. Almost all soil and climatic conditions are repre- 
sented on the areas producing corn within this range. 
Nevertheless, the bulk of the production is largely cen- 
tralized in a somewhat restricted area (Iowa, Illinois, 
Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio) where exists 
the most favorable combination of soil, climate, and topog- 
raphy. 

SOIL ADAPTATIONS 

With climatic conditions favorable, the factor which 
influences the yield of corn most is the nature and condi- 
tion of the soil. 

256. Soils adapted to com. — Corn is successfully 
grown on a wide variety of soils. Owing to its abundant 
foliage and the rapidity with which it transpires water, 
corn will not make a satisfactory growth on soils of low 
water-holding capacity. They should be deep, friable, 
and well supplied with decaying vegetable matter. The 
latter factor is of special importance, not only because 

211 



212 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

of its relation to water storage in the soil, but because 
it insures an abundant supply of nitrogen. Corn demands 
a large supply of nitrogen, flourishing in soils so rich in 
this constituent as to induce an excessive growth of straw, 
a tendency to lodge, and a low yield of grain in other 
cereals. Alluvial river bottom soils, if well drained and sup- 
plied with vegetable matter, are ideal for corn. Such 
soils usually contain a higher percentage of silt than of 
any other soil separate, mixed with considerable quantities 
of very fine sand and clay. Soils of this constitution are 
of that loamy character so admirably adapted to corn 
growing. 

257. Soils not adapted to com. — A large percentage 
of the corn crop in the cotton-belt is each year planted 
on soils that, for various reasons, will not produce a 
profitable yield. Such soils may be grouped in three 
classes : 

(1) Sandy soils, deficient in vegetable matter and min- 
eral plant-food. Such soils occur in extensive areas 
throughout the coastal plains region. 

(2) Uplands from which the greater part of the top soil 
has been lost by erosion. Soils of this character are abun- 
dant in all sections of the cotton-belt having an uneven 
topography. 

(3) Rich bottom lands which, for lack of drainage, have 
become cold and sour. 

(4) Very stiff compact clays through which the roots 
cannot penetrate and which, because of their physical 
character, are very difficultly prepared. 

258. Modification of soils for com. — The undesirable 
soil conditions enumerated above, can, in most cases, be 
so modified by suitable methods of soil management as 
to permit the successful production of corn. Tlie im- 



SOIL AND CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS OF CORN 213 

poverished sandy soils should be planted iVocnuuitly to 
such crops as cowpeas, soybeans, velvet beans, or oats 
and vetch, and occasionally the entire crop plowed under. 
In addition it will usually be necessary to appl}^ phosphatic 
and potassic fertilizers. The eroded uplands should be 
terraced and such cropping systems practiced as will 
restore the nitrogen and vegetable matter. The sour 
bottom lands should be drained and half a ton to a ton 
of slacked lime added to the acre. The application of 
rough manures to the compact clays greatly improves their 
condition, especially when such an application is followed 
by fall plowing. Until the productiveness of these un- 
desirable corn soils has been increased they should jtiot 
he planted to corn. 

259. Soil type and crop variety. — There is no question 
but that there is a great difference in varieties of corn in 
their adaptation to different soils. For example, Hickory 
King corn will reach normal development on much thinner 
soil than will Albemarle Prolific. The best use of the differ- 
ent types of corn soil can be made only when the most 
suitable varieties are grown. 

CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS 

260. Factors of climate. — The principal elements 
coml)ining to determine the climate of a given region 
are rainfall, sunshine, and temperature. Wind and hu- 
midity are minor climatic factors. The adaptability of 
a given region for a particular crop is determined both by 
the combination and distribution of these factoids. In 
corn-growing, their distribution is of special importance 
in determining the length of the growing season. In fact 
the climate favorable to corn is determined more by the 
distribution than by the intensity of these factors. 



/ 



214 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

261. Influence of rainfall. — Seasonal rainfall and its 
distribution is the most important climatic factor in corn 
production. While corn requires less water to produce 
one pound of dry matter than many other crops, the large 
total weight of dry substance to the acre produced by this 
crop makes necessary large quantities of water. It is es- 
timated that 14 to 20 tons of water must be transpired to 
produce one bushel of corn. This equals 7 to 10 acre- 
inches for a yield of 50 bushels to the acre. When it is 
remembered that this water requirement does not include 
the loss from run-off, drainage, and evaporation, the im- 
portance of an abundant rainfall in corn production is at 
once appreciated. 

In the cotton-belt the May, June, July, and August 
rainfall is most important in producing corn. The distri- 
bution of the rainfall during this season is of utmost im- 
portance in determining the character of growth and total 
yield. Excessive rains in the early part of the growing 
season favor the development of a shallow root-system 
which unfits the crop to withstand the frequent dry 
weather .of July and August. Comparatively heavy rains 
at considerable intervals throughout the entire growing 
season, with sunshiny weather in the meantime is the 
condition most favorable to the normal growth of the corn 
plant. Frequent light showers permit the excessive loss 
of moisture by evaporation. 

262. Influence of sunshine. — The relation of sun- 
light to the normal growth of the corn plant was discussed 
in the chapter on the physiology of the corn plant. The 
effect of sunshine will be in proportion to the number of 
sunshiny days and the intensity of the sunlight. Corn, 
being a semi-tropical plant, requires considerable sunshine 
for its normal growth. Except where extreme cloudiness 



SOIL ASD CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS OF CORN 215 

prevails there is sufficient sunshine for corn production 
up to 70 degrees latitude. 

263. Influence of temperature. — Corn requires, in 
addition to a moderately large, well -distributed seasonal 
rainfall and a large amount of sunshine, a relatively high 
temperature. While it is difficult to give precise limits to 
any influence that is one of several absolutely necessary, 
the direct relation between temperature and yield is more 
obscure than that between rainfall and yield. In fact a 
high average temperature and large precipitation are 
somewhat opposed to each other, as low rainfall during 
the growing season is usually accompanied by a high 
average temperature. It is the temperature during the 
corn growing season, inclusive, rather than the average 
annual temperature that influences the yield of the 
crop. Three-fourths of the total corn crop of the United 
States is produced between the July isotherms 70"^ F. 
and 80° F. 

264. Length of growing season. — From the stand- 
point of the farmer there is no factor in the study of cli- 
mate that should be given more consideration than the 
average length of the growing season. It serves as a key 
to accurate knowledge relative to the possibilities of suc- 
cess or failure in the production of crops. Fig. 16 shows 
the average length of the crop growing season in the cotton- 
belt to vary from 200 days in the northern limit to 300 
days in the southern limit. As we proceed north from the 
cotton-belt the growing season continues to decrease in 
length. These figures are based on the average dates of 
the last killing frost in the spring and the first killing frost 
in the fall. As a matter of fact, the actual length of the 
growing season is most often limited by factors other than 
frost. In the cotton-belt the growing period is usually 



216 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

limited by the dry period in the fall, making it shorter 
than the frost limit data indicate. 

Corn is unique in being able to adjust itself to the grow- 
ing season. In the extreme northern section of the United 
States, some varieties mature in 80 days. In no part of 
the cotton-belt has corn been able to utilize to advantage 
a growing season in excess of 200 days. Most varieties 
mature in 140 to 180 days. As a usual thing, the longer 
the growing season up to a limit of 180 or 200 days, the 
greater the yield of corn. 

265. Influence of climate upon habit of growth. — 
Corn adjusts itself readily to changes in its environment. 
We find, therefore, a marked correlation between climatic 
conditions and its habit of growth. The greatest variation 
is found in the size of the plant and in the time of maturity. 
Southern varieties grow much taller than northern varie- 
ties, and the stalks are more massive. Hunt ^ states that 
"in general it may be said that as we go north or south of a 
given latitude a variety becomes one day later or earUer 
for each ten miles of travel, the altitude remaining the 
same. That is to say a variety which ripens two weeks 
before a killing frost in a given locality would only barely 
ripen if taken 140 miles farther north, the altitude remain- 
ing the same. Care should be taken, therefore, in selecting 
new varieties, to get them from the same latitude. If 
obtained from much farther north they may ripen too 
early and consequently be too small. If obtained much 
farther south, they may not ripen." 

1 Hunt's "Cereals in America," p. 205. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

CROPPING SYSTEMS, MANURES AND FER- 
TILIZERS FOR CORN 

Any system of corn production must ultimately fail 
unless it maintains the producing power of the land. 
Successful cropping systems are based upon an accurate 
knowledge of the reasons for doing things. The ultimate 
effect of each agricultural practice upon the producing 
power of the soil must be kept constantly in mind. 

In only exceptional cases have the cropping systems 
employed by southern farmers throughout the cotton- 
belt maintained the productiveness of the land. This has 
led to exceptionally low average crop yields. The soil 
problem, therefore, of the southern farmer is not merely 
the maintenance of soil fertility. He must adopt systems 
of soil management under which the land becomes better 
rather than poorer. The solution of this problem lies in 
the adoption of well-planned cropping systems, supple- 
mented by the judicious use of manures and fertilizers. 

CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR CORN 

The advantages of a well-ordored cropping system in 
maintaining soil fertility are discussed in connection with 
rotations for cotton, page 96. 

266. Continuous com culture impoverishes soil. — 
That the continuous growth of corn on the same land 
will ultimately lead to decreased yields is common knowl- 
edge. The Illinois Experiment Station has compared 

217 



218 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

continuous corn growing with rotations of corn and oats; 
and corn, oats, and clover with the following results: 

Table 15. Showing Average Corn Yields for Last Three Years 
Where Three Systems of Cropping are Compared. (III. 

Sta.) 1 



Crop Years 


Crop System 


13-Year 

Experiments. 

Bushels 


29-Year 

Experiments, 

Bushels 


1905-6-7 
1903-5-7 
1901-4-7 


Corn every year 
Corn and oats 
Corn, oats and clover 


35 
62 
66 


27 
46 
58 



The yield of corn on this land before the experiment was 
started was 70 bushels an acre. The one-crop system has 
decreased the yield 35 bushels an acre in thirteen years 
and 43 bushels in twenty-nine years. The yields have also 
decreased, though less rapidly, where the rotations were 
practiced. As all crops were removed from the land, it is 
probable that neither rotation supplied organic matter 
in sufficient amounts to liberate the mineral matter re- 
quired by a 70-bushel crop of corn. When all crops are re- 
moved, rotation will not maintain soil productiveness. 

On soils that are quite deficient in mineral matter, or 
where all crops are removed from the land, the rotation 
must be supplemented by manures or fertilizers. This fact 
is well illustrated by the results of an experiment conducted 
by the Louisiana Station on hill land originally covered 
with pine trees and much exhausted by from seventy to 
eighty years of cotton culture. The experiment consisted 
of six one-acre plots arranged in three series of two plots 
each, one unfertilized and the other fertilized for each 

1 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 125, 1908. 



CHOPPING SYSTEMS, FERTILIZERS FOR CORN 219 

crop in the rotation. The rotation was first year, cotton; 
second year, corn and cowpeas; third year, oats followed 
by cowpeas. 

In the fertilizing of this rotation the cotton receivad 30 
bushels per acre of a compost made by mixing two tons of 
acid phosphate with a hundred bushels each of stable 
manui'e and cotton seed. The corn received 30 bushels to 
the acre of a compost made by mixing one ton of acid 
phosphate with 100 bushels of stable manure and 100 
bushels of cotton seed. The oats received 200 pounds of 
cotton-seed meal and 100 pounds of acid phosphate to the 
acre, and the cowpeas 50 pounds of acid phsophate and 
50 pounds of kainit to the acre. The results for 19 years 
follow : 



Table 16. Louisiana Field Experii^ents at Calhoun. 
Average Yields to the Acre fob Period of 19 Years ^ 



Series 


Seed Cotton 
Pounds 


Corn (Bushels) 


Oats (Bushels) 


Unferti- 
lized 


Ferti- 
lized 


Unferti- 
lized 


Ferti- 
lized 


Unferti- 
lized 


Ferti- 
lized 


A 

B 

C 

Average . . . 


459 
507 
432 
466 


1555 
1811 
1175 
1514 


9.7 
8.9 
9.6 
9.4 


30.4 
30.5 
33.5 
31.4 


22.1 
12.4 
14.9 
16.4 


49.3 
32.2 
44.1 

41.8 


Increase 




1048 


22.0 




25.4 



267. The place of corn in a rotation. — Corn will utilize 
more profitably than most other field crops organic matter 
that is only partially decayed. It also requires an abun- 
dance of nitrogen. For these reasons the rotations through- 

- 1 La. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. Ill, 1908. 



220 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

out the corn-growing regions outside of tlie cotton-belt 
are so planned as to bring corn on the land immediately 
following the hay crop. A good rotation for the corn-belt 
is corn, two years; wheat or oats, one year; timothy and 
clover, three years. In the cotton-belt corn usually follows 
cotton in the rotation, and is followed by fall sown small- 
grains. When the yield of corn alone is considered this is 
not the best arrangement. It is given this position because 
it permits the early preparation of the land for small- 
grains. Cotton is not generally removed in time to permit 
the fall seeding of small-grains. 

268. Suggested rotations for the cotton-belt. — The 
•rotation most generally recommended for the cotton-belt 
is (1) cotton; (2) corn; (3) oats or wheat followed by 
cowpeas. Often cowpeas are sown in the corn at the last 
cultivation. This is an excellent rotation and applicable to 
a large part of the cotton-belt. 

The North Carolina State Department of Agriculture 
suggests the following rotation for the cotton district of 
that state: (1) cotton, with rye or oats as winter cover; 
(2) cotton, with crimson clover as winter cover; (3) corn 
with cowpeas, plowed deep in fall after corn is cut off, 
with rye as winter cover, and back to cotton. 

A four-year rotation rather widely practiced in the sugar- 
cane sections of Louisiana is first, second, and third years, 
sugar-cane; fourth year, corn with cowpeas. 

The number of rotations that can be followed in the 
production of the corn crop is large. No rotation should 
be adopted that does not provide a liberal supply of or- 
ganic matter to the soil. Open sandy soils subject to the 
rapid loss of organic matter by oxidation are best adapted 
to short rotations which bring humus supplying crops 
on the land at rather short intervals. 



CROPPING SYSTEMS, FERTILIZERS FOR CORN 221 

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS FOR CORN 

269. Manures. — The profitable increase in corn 
yields from adding stable or farm marmres is almost 
universal. Probably the chief reason for this is that the 
nianin-e supplies organic matter, which when in proper 
condition may greatly influence the water content of the 
soil. The value of this indirect effect is evidenced by the 
fact that manure sometimes greatly increases the yield 
of corn where commercial fertilizers produce no increase. 
The by-products of the decomposition of manure also 
render more available the plant-food constituents already 
in the soil. 

The marked effect of manure on the yield of corn is 
shown by results from the Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Illi- 
nois Stations: 

Table 17. Results from the Ohio/ Pennsylvania,'- and 
Illinois ^ Stations Showing Results with Barnyard 
Manure on Yield of Corn 







Yield of Corn 






Bushels to the Acre 


Station 


Rotation 














No treatment 


Farmyard 
manure 


Ohio, 13 Yr. Average 


Corn, Wheat, 








Clover 


38.8 


54.6 (8 tons) 


Penn., 25-Yr. Average 


Corn, Oats, 








Wheat, Clover 


42.1 


57.5 (12 tons) 


111. New Manito Field, 


Corn 


8.8 


43.5 (6 tons) 


1907 






64.9 (12 tons) 



1 Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ, 104, j). 17. 

2 Penn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui., 190. 

^ Hopkins' " Soil Fertilitj' and Permanent Agr.," p. 473. 



222 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



On a large percentage of the farms in the cotton-belt 
farmers cannot keep sufficient live-stock to depend on 
barnyard manure as the principal source of organic mat- 
ter for all of the cultivated land. Hence, it is neces- 
sary that the manure be supplemented with green- 
manures. The following data relative to the use of 
green-manures in corn production was secured by the 
Alabama Station: 

Table 18. Results from the Alabama Station Showing Value 
OF Stubble and Vines of Velvet Beans and Cowpeas 
AS Fertilizer for Corn ^ 1901 



System 


Bu. OF Corn 
PER Acre 


Increase per 

Acre 

(Bushels) 


Corn following com 

Corn following velvet bean stubble .... 

Corn following velvet beans, entire 

growth plowed under 


13.6 
^ 17.9 

25.9 
11.4 
20 3 


4.3 
12.3 


Corn after drilled cowpea stubble 

Corn after drilled cowpeas, all plowed in 


8.9 



The profits resulting from the application of vegetable 
matter to corn land cannot be measured by the crop 
yield immediately following the application. A marked 
residual effect is usually noticed for a number of years 
following the treatment. 

270. Lime for com. — A review of the experimental 
evidence regarding the use of Hme for corn strongly indi- 
cates that corn is not a Hme-loving plant. According to 
the Bureau of Soils, United States Department of Agri- 



1 Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui., 134. 



CROPPING SYSTEMS, FERTILIZERS FOR CORN 223 

culture (Bui. 64), one hundred and sixty-eight experiments 
conducted by experiment stations in this country on the 
use of lime for corn show an average increase of 3.2 
bushels an acre at a cost of S8.91 for the lime. While 
lime is an essential plant-food, most soils are abundantly 
supplied in so far as the requirements for growth are 
concerned. A 50-bushel corn crop requires approxi- 
mately 12 pounds of lime. When lime is required it is 
usually as a soil amendment rather than a direct food for 
the crop. 

The soil conditions which would respond profitably 
to an application of lime in producing corn may be divided 
into tliree clases: (1) Low-lying soils that have remained 
wet for a number of years and, following drainage, remain 
sour; (2) upland sandy soils to which large quantities of 
vegetable matter have been added, the decomposition of 
which would sour the soil; (3) heavy clay soils in humid 
regions, where the aeration is poor and consequently the 
plant-food is in an unavailable form. 

271. Fertilizers for com. — The fertilizer practice 
in the, production of corn in the cotton-belt has been much 
abused. Two mistakes are most often noticed. (1) The 
application of complete ready mixed fertilizers regardless 
of the needs of the particular soil in question; (2) depend- 
ing upon fertilizers to offset the ill-effects of the one-crop 
system, poor tillage, and lack of drainage. The most 
profitable returns from fertiUzers are possible only when 
they are employed to supplement the other essential fea- 
tures of good soil management. 

272. Plant-food removed by com. — The require- 
ments of corn for the three plant-food constituents that 
are recognized as having money values in commercial 
fertilizers are indicated on page 224: 



224 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



Table 19. Approximate Amounts of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid 
AND Potash Removed by a SO-Bushel Crop of Corn (Pounds) 





Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Potash 


50 bu. grain 

3000 lbs. stover 


47 
24 


19 
14 


15 
39 


Total in grain and stover 


71 


33 


54 



When total yield of dry matter to the acre is considered, 
corn does not make an excessive demand on the soil for 
food. Nevertheless, the amounts removed are appreciable. 
The nitrogen should always be returned in amounts greater 
than that contained in the crop to offset the loss from 
leaching. The phosphoric acid and potash should be re- 
turned in all cases except where the soil contains large 
natural supplies of these materials. 

It should be noticed that two-thirds of the total nitrogen 
and the greater part of the phosphoric acid removed from 
the soil are in the grain. The stover contains nearly 
three-fourths of the total potash. Even if only the grain 
was removed and the stover returned to the soil the supply 
of nitrogen and phosphoric acid in the land would be 
materially decreased. Sound fertilizer practice, however, 
is not based on supplying to the soil the plant-food constit- 
uents in the same proportion in which they are removed 
in crops. 

273. Soils and fertilizers. — The nature and amount 
of fertilizing materials most profitable for corn are deter- 
mined largely by the character of the soil on which the crop 
is grown. The method of determining the fertilizer needs 
of soil for cotton is given in paragraph 100. This same 
principle is equally applicable to corn. That best results 



CROPPING SYSTEMS, FERTILIZERS FOR CORN 225 



are not necessarily secured when the fertilizing constituents 
are applied to the land in the same ratio to each other as 
they occur in the plant has been demonstrated by several 
experiment stations. The results from the Ohio Station 
are given: 

Table 20. Fehtilizer Tests with Continuous Corn Culture 
AT THE Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Average 
FOR 16 Years, 1894-1909 ' 



Plot 


Fertilizing Materials 


Yield per 
Acre 


Increase 


No. 


(Pounds per acre) 


Grain Stover 
(Bu.) (Lbs.) 


Grain 
(Bu.) 


Stover 
(Lbs.) 


1 
2 

3 

4 


None 

Acid Phos. 160 
Mur. Potash 100 
Nitrate Soda 160 
Acid Phos. 60 
Mur. Potash 30 
Nitrate Soda 160 

None 


Arbitrary 
quantity 

Ratio in 
corn plant 


22.22 
42.71 

34.95 
17.46 


1441 
2326 

1946 
1246 


22.08 
15.90 


949 
634 









274. Relative importance of fertilizing constituents. — 
A review of the experimental evidence regarding the rel- 
ative value of the different fertilizing constituents when ap- 
plied to corn in the cotton-belt shows that in the majority 
of cases nitrogenous fertilizers have increased the crop to 
a much greater extent than other kinds. There are two 
important reasons why this is true. (1) Corn makes more 
excessive demands on the soil for nitrogen than for other 
food elements. (2) Southern soils in general are low in 
organic matter and therefore deficient in nitrogen. 

The profits from the use of phosphatic fertilizers are, as 
1 From Montgomery's "Corn Crops," p. 139. 



226 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

a rule, greater than from those supplying potash, due 
doubtless to the greater abundance of potash in most 
normal soils. The sandy soils of the Coastal Plains region 
are generally quite deficient in plant-food and respond 
to the use of a complete fertilizer. The nitrogen supply, 
however, should be maintained by the use of barnyard 
manure and leguminous green-manures. 

275. When to apply fertilizers. — The usual practice 
in the cotton-belt is to apply the fertilizer for corn either 
a short time before or at the time the crop is planted. This 
is especially true of phosphatic and potassic fertilizers. 
When rather heavy applications are to be made, say 400 
to 800 pounds to the acre, it is good practice to apply a 
portion of the fertilizer before or at the time of planting, 
withholding the remainder for intercultural application. In 
determining the best time to apply fertilizers for corn, one 
should consider the nature of the materials used. Readily 
soluble nitrogenous fertilizers, such as nitrate of soda, 
should not be applied (except in small amounts), before 
the crop has become well established, and can therefore 
utilize the fertilizer at once and prevent loss from leaching. 
It would be wasteful, however, to apply any nitrogenous 
substance late in the growing season. One of the chief 
functions of nitrogen is to produce growth. Its late appli- 
cation prevents it from exercising this function. 

276. Method of applying fertilizers. — Various meth- 
ods are employed in applying fertihzers for corn. When 
heavy applications are to be made, broadcasting the 
fertilizer on the land after plowing and incorporating 
it in the soil with a harrow, is an excellent practice. Ap- 
plications up to 300 pounds an acre are usually drilled in 
or applied in the hill. Drilling with some form of ferti- 
lizer distributor is preferable. A combination method 



CROPPING SYSTEMS, FERTILIZERS FOR CORN 227 

of broadcasting and drilling is sometimes used. One 
advantage of the method is that the fertilizer applied in 
the drill furnishes plant-food during the first growth before 
the roots are developed and that which is sown broadcast 
helps the later growth when the roots spread out. Inter- 
cultural appHcations may be broadcast between the rows 
and cultivated in, or they may be drilled in six or eight 
inches from the row when the corn is eight to twelve 
inches high. 

277. Fertilizer formulas for com. — The fertilizer for- 
mulas here given are merely suggestive. They should 
not be adhered to too strictly, as the needs of the soil in 
question must receive first consideration. The ordinary 
corn fertihzer most commonly used in the cotton-belt 
contains 8 to 10 per cent available phosphoric acid, 1.65 
to 2.5 per cent nitrogen and 1 to 3 per cent potash. The 
usual application is from 150 to 400 pounds to the acre. 

For general use a mixture of acid phosphate and cotton- 
seed meal makes a good fertilizer for corn. The relative 
proportion of these materials will depend on the soil. 

Well-improved lands, lands that are comparatively new, 
or well-drained bottom lands are usually benefited by acid 
phosphate at the rate of 100 to 200 pounds to the acre. 

For soils rich in potash, Halligan recommends the 
following formula for corn: 

2 parts cotton-seed meal 1 ,„„ „ , , 

1 _x -J 1- 1. X }^400 lbs. to the acre. 

1 part acid phosphate J 

The Texas Station recommends the following formula 
for corn on worn soils: 

Acid phosphate, 14 per cent 000 pounds 

Cotton-seed meal 900 pounds 

Kainit 150 founds 



228 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

The above fertilizer would contain 7.2 per cent phos- 
phoric acid, 1.6 per cent potash and 3.6 per cent nitrogen. 
It is recommended that it be applied at the rate of 200 
to 400 pounds to the acre. 

Hutchinson of the Mississippi Station says: 

"A mixture of 750 pounds of cotton-seed meal and 1250 
pounds of acid phosphate to the ton makes a good fer- 
tilizer for this state. From 125 pounds to 200 pounds of 
this mixture should be used to the acre under cotton and 
corn and should be applied in the drill or bed at the tims 
of preparing the land for planting." 

Duggar, of the Alabama Station suggests the following 
fertilizer formulas for corn: 

(A) 100 pounds acid phosphate 1 /,,,.,, ^ i x- \ 

,„ , . ' .' J •> (both just before planting) 

50 pounds nitrate oi soda ) 

50 pounds nitrate of soda, at second cultivation. 

(B) 100 pounds acid phosphate 1 /u i.u u f i *■ \ 
200 pounds cotton-seed meal j 

For very sandy soils : 

100 to 200 lbs. acid phosphate 

100 lbs. nitrate of soda (or 200 pounds cotton-seed meal) 
50 to 100 lbs. kainit. 

278. Some general principles. — Experience and ex- 
periment station results in the cotton-belt have revealed 
some general principles underlying the use of fertilizers 
in corn production that should be kept in mind. 

(1) Fertilizers are most profitable when used in connec- 
tion with a well-planned cropping-system which supplies 
the soil with an abundance of organic matter and most 
of its needed nitrogen. 

(2) A suitable cropping-system, including the careful 
saving of all manure, together with the use of a phosphatic 



CROPPING SYSTEMS, FERTILIZERS FOR CORN 229 

fertilizer will maintain the normal soils of the cotton-belt 
at a high level of productiveness. 

(3) Nitrogen is too expensive to purchase in commercial 
fertilizers to supply the entire needs of the corn crop. It 
should be supplied by growing legumes and applying 
barnyard manure. 

(4) It seldom pays to use fertilizers, (a) where corn is 
grown continuously; (b) on land that is deficient in organic 
matter; (c) on land that has been poorly prepared. Under 
such conditions a relatively small percentage of the fer- 
tilizer is used by the crop. 



CHAPTER XIX 

PREPARING THE SEED-BED FOR CORN 

Cultural methods for any crop must vary with the 
local situation. Any discussion of this phase of corn pro- 
duction, to be applicable to the entire cotton-belt, must 
deal largely with basic principles rather than with details. 
The basic principles underlying the preparation of the seed- 
bed for corn are (1) modifying the soil in such a way as 
to enable it best to meet the special demands of the crop 
for food and water, and (2) protecting the crop from weeds, 
insects, or parasites. The farmer himself must determine 
by study and experience the detailed system whereby 
these principles are to be most profitably applied on his 
own farm. 

PLOWING THE LAND 

279. Destroying the stalks. — The southern corn- 
grower often follows the undesirable practice of growing 
corn every year on the same land. Where rotatfon is 
practiced, corn most often follows cotton. In either sys- 
tem the old corn or cotton stalks must be disposed of 
previously to plowing the land for the succeeding corn 
crop. Often these stalks are burned. Such a practice 
is never warranted in the cotton-belt where the greatest 
need of the soil is organic matter. To destroy the stalks 
so that they can be easily plowed under, one of the follow- 
ing methods may be followed. (1) By use of the stalk- 

230 



PREPARING THE SEED-BED FOR CORN 281 

cutter. This is an implement with one or two heavy 
revolving cylinders set with knives that cut the stalks in 
short lengths. The stalk-cutter is sometimes followed with 
a disk-harrow. (2) By breaking down the stalks with a 
log or heavy iron rail, and following with a sharp disk to 
cut them up. (3) Corn stalks may be cut into two or three 
sections with a hoe and the cotton stalks broken by beat- 
ing them with a heavy stick during the frosty mornings 
of winter. 

280. Time of plowing. — Soils may be divided into 
two classes as regards the most desirable time of plowing 
for corn. (1) Those soils that are best plowed in the fall 
or early winter. (2) Soils that may be satisfactorily plowed 
in late winter or early spring. 

Soils that are advantageously plowed in the fall or early 
winter are (1) heavy clays; (2) soils covered with large 
quantities of stubble or crop residue in any form, and (3) 
land infested with the larvae of injurious insects. 

Fall plowing makes available the large stores of potential 
fertility in clay soils. The free circulation of air through 
these soils during the winter months permits important 
chemical changes, such as oxidation, to take place whereby 
those elements of plant-food that are tenaciously held in 
combination with other matter are changed into new forms 
easily absorbed by plants. By the same processes com- 
pounds deleterious to plant growth are destroyed. The 
soil is also permitted to absorb readily and store up for 
future use the winter's heavy rainfall. 

Plowing under large quantities of organic matter in 
the fall or early winter gives sufficient time for this sub- 
stance to decompose before the growing season. Thus 
the plant-food constituents contained in the organic 
matter are available to the crop, and in addition the acid 



232 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

by-products of this decomposition will have made soluble 
much of the native plant-food in the soil. The added hu- 
mus benefits the structure of the soil, increasing its water- 
holding capacity. 

Loose sandy soils, if plowed in the fall, will suffer con- 
siderable loss from leaching during the winter months. 
This is especially true if the land is left bare. Such soils 
should not be plowed until late winter or early spring. 
It is not advisable, however, to defer plowing until immedi- 
ately before planting as the seed-bed will be too loose for 
best results. 

It is often impossible to plow land in season, owing to 
unfavorable weather conditions. Land should never be 
plowed when wet enough to prevent proper pulverizing. 

281. Depth of plowing. — This must be governed 
by the character of the soil, its previous treatment, and 
the time at which the plowing is done. In general, clay 
soils should be plowed deeper than sands. A very heavy 
clay soil should be plowed deep at least once each year. 
Soils of medium texture may produce satisfactorily with 
deep plowing every two or three years. The practice of 
deepening clay soils should be gone about cautiously. 
Plowing up large quantities of inert subsoil at one opera- 
tion will temporarily decrease productiveness. The in- 
crease in depth should be secured gradually by plowing 
an inch deeper each year until the desired depth has been 
reached. For best results all land should be occasionally 
plowed 8 to 10 inches deep. 

The earlier in the season at which plowing is done and 
the greater the amount of vegetable matter to be plowed 
under, the greater is the increase in depth that can be 
secured without experiencing any ill effects. 

282. Covering rubbish. — An important object of 



PREPARING THE SEED-BED FOR (VRN 233 

plowing is to cover weeds, stubble and rubbish of all kinds. 
This work may be greatly facilitated by the use of various 
kinds of attachments, the most common of which are: 
(1) coulters; (2) jointers; and (3) drag-chains. Coulters 
are of two general types: (a) blade coulters and (b) fin 
coulters. Blade coulters are attached to the beam or share 
and adjusted so as to cut the furrow-slice free from the 
side after the soil has been raised somewhat by the mold- 
board. The roots are then most easily severed. A fin 
coulter is merely a knife edge attached to the share. The 
jointer is used chiefly in plowing sod land. It consists of 
a miniature mold-board attached to the beam and adjusted 
so as to cut and turn under the top part of the furrow- 
shce. The result is that the plow turns a neat clean furrow 
without leaving a portion of the rubbish exposed. The 
drag-chain is used primarily in turning under heavy 
growths of weeds or green-manure crops. It consists of a 
heavy chain, one end of which is attached to the central 
part of the beam, the other end being fastened to the 
double-tree on the furrow side with slack enough to drag 
down the vegetation on the furrow-slice just ahead of the 
turning point. 

283. Subsoiling. — This operation is defined and the 
precautions to lie taken in connection with the practice 
are outlined in paragraph 119. A number of experiments 
have been conducted by southern experiment stations 
to determine the effects of subsoiling land for corn. Many 
of these experiments have shown no beneficial effects. 
In some cases negative effects have been noticed. How- 
ever, where subsoiling has been practiced in the fall on 
lands underlain near the surface with an impervious 
clay subsoil, beneficial results have usually been se- 
cured. 



234 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



PREPARATION OF PLOWED LAND 

284. Treatment of plowed land. — ^ The treatment 
of the land from plowing to planting is given with various 
types of harrows. Special conditions may require the use 
of compacting implements. The primary objects sought 
for in the preparatiori of plowed land are (1) pulverizing 
clods, (2) conserving moisture, (3) killing weeds, (4) 
compacting the subsurface, and (5) leveling the surface. 
The amount of harrowing that must be given the land after 
plowing will depend upon (1) the character of soil, (2) the 
condition of the land when plowed as well as its previous 
treatment, and (3) the time at which the harrowing is 
done. Clay soils require more fitting than loams or sands. 
It is of the utmost importance that clay soils be har- 
rowed as quickly as possible after plowing. One harrowing 
within a few hours after plowing will accomplish as much 
as three or four harrowings after the clods are dry. This 
is especially true of soils plowed in late winter or spring. 
Fall-plowed soils, if not planted to a cover-crop, are often 
left in a rough condition until after the rainy season. 
Under such conditions the tendency to run together in a 
compact condition is not so great. Heavy soils that have 
been plowed when too wet or that have been pastured 
during rainy weather are prepared with extreme difficulty. 
In fact it is almost impossible to secure an ideal seed-bed 
under such conditions. This emphasizes the extreme 
folly of such practices. A good loam or sandy soil, if 
plowed when in proper condition, may require very little 
harrowing to secure a good seed-bed. 

285, The disk-harrow. — This is unquestionably the 
best tool for pulverizing to a depth of several inches. The 
importance of pulverizing all clods in the seed-bed before 



PREPARING THE SEED-BED FOR CORX 2;i5 

planting cannot he overestimated. Large lumps massed 
together have between them much air space. Such a 
condition not only allows the rain water to percolate to 
lower depths too rapidly, but it admits too much surface 
air which rapidly dries out the lumps and robs the seed-bed 
of its moisture. A seed-bed must consist of well-firmed 
fine earth if roots are to penetrate it readily. For pulver- 
izing sod, stubble or corn-stalk land, the full-bladed disk 
is preferable. For compact soils, the cutaway disk is a 
good implement. 

286. The smoothing harrow. — On land that is free 
from large clods and trash some form of smoothing harrow 
is the best implement for smoothing the surface, killing 
weeds, and conserving moisture. The adjustable slant- 
tooth and lever forms are more practical and popular. 
Farmers with sufficient acreage to justify it are advised 
to use the large four-section harrows because of the high 
price of farm labor. With such an implement one man and 
four horses can harrow from thirty to forty acres in a 
day. These harrows should be more generally used. They 
leave the ground in a most excellent state of tilth. 

287. Special harrows. — Other types of harrows used 
for special purposes in the preparation of corn land are 
the spring-tooth harrow, the acme or curved-knife form 
of harrow, the weeder and the meeker harrow. The 
spring-tooth harrow has a decided value for stony land or 
in timbered sections where the teeth are likely to catch 
on roots. The acme harrow is most useful in the later 
stages of pulverization on soil free from stone and stalks. 
It consists of a series of twisted blades which cut the soil 
and work it over. Where stalks are present they ride over 
them too easily. The weeder is a modified form of spring- 
toothed harrow adapted primarily to killing weeds. It 



23(j FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

is for shallow tillage on friable, easily worked soil. The 
meeker harrow is merely a series of lines of small disks 
arranged on straight axles. It is used primarily for the 
pulverization of numerous small hard lumps on the sur- 
face. 

288. Subsurface packers. — A fairly compact seed- 
bed is desirable at planting time. When plowing is done 
long in advance, rains usually accomplish this object. 
Soils that are plowed after the rainy season, or immediately 
before planting, are much benefited when some imple- 
ment is used upon them that will bring the furrow-slice 
in close contact with the subsoil, firm the seed-bed, and 
leave a loose mulch on top. In arid sections, fall-plowed 
lands are usually benefited by this treatment. It prevents 
the rapid drying out of the plowed portion and conse- 
quently the loss of much water from the subsoil. An 
excellent implement for accomphshing this purpose is the 
Campbell form of subsurface packer. It " consists of small 
wheels placed five inches apart on an axle. The rim is 
much thickened and is triangular in shape, with the thin 
edge outward, so that the effect is to give a decided down- 
ward and sidewise pressure, while enough fine earth is left 
at the immediate surface to serve as a mulch." 

When a subsurface packer is not available, a disk- 
harrow may be made to serve the purpose by having the 
disks set with very httle angle and weigli/ted to force them 
deeply into the soil. 

289. Ridging com land. — In certain sections of the 
cotton-belt, notably on the stiff, waxy lands of Alabama, 
Mississippi, and Texas, some farmers follow a system of 
ridging or forming beds on which the rows of corn are 
planted. For poorly drained soils that compact readily 
after rains this system possesses some advantages, pro- 



PRE PA KING THE SEED-BED FOR CORN %M 

vided the ridges are not left too high. It provides in- 
creased drainage and warmtli and obviates, to an extent, 
the tendency of these soils to become quite compact as a 
result of the spring rains. It must be remembered, how- 
ever, that ridged land exposes more surface to evaporation 
and crops are more subject to drought when this system 
is followed than when the land is cultivated level. Even 
where the ridging of the land is necessary, the ridges 
should be partially harrowed down before planting. 

290. Wide beds for com. — A modification of the 
ridging system whereby surface drainage is facilitated 
and the advantages of level planting are partially secured 
has been tried with excellent results by some of the south- 
ern stations. This system is d'escribed by Duggar as fol- 
lows : 

"Prepare the field by back-furrowing so as to make 
eight-foot lands, or lands of double the width desired for 
a single row. Plant two rows four feet apart on this eight- 
foot land. This places each row two feet from a water- 
furrow on one side. The other side of the same row can 
be tilled level." 



CHAPTER XX 

PLANTING AND CULTIVATING THE CORN 
CROP 

Unquestionably the two most important reasons for 
the low yield of corn in the South are the poor cropping 
systems of the region and lack of care in the preparation 
of the seed-bed. Until these two serious defects have been 
corrected the southern corn-grower cannot expect to re- 
ceive maximum returns for labor expended in planting 
and cultivating the crop. Likewise the value of a good 
soil well prepared may be reduced to a minimum by poor 
methods of planting or a disregard for correct principles 
of interculture. 

PLANTING THE SEED 

Poor stands of corn are often due to the planting of 
seed of low vitality. The impression that there is no need 
of testing seed corn in the South has become somewhat 
general. As there are a great many ways in which the 
vitality of seed corn may be impaired aside from severe 
freezing, and as the method of testing seed corn is very 
simple and inexpensive, the planting of untested seed by 
any farmer, regardless of his locality, cannot be justified. 

291. Testing the seed. — The corn must be tested 
before the seed is shelled. A box or tray approximately 
thi-ee inches deep and of sufficient size is filled with wet 
sawdust or sand. This is covered with cloth that has been 
ruled off in two-inch squares, each square being numbered. 

238 



PLANTING AND CULTIVATING THE CORN CROP 230 

The ears to be tested are placed on a table or convenient 
place and numbered consecutively. Six grains are taken 
from each ear and placed in the corresponding square on 
the cloth. In sampling the ears one should take two grains 
near the butt, two from the middle and two from near 
the tip. The grains are covered with a second cloth on 
which is placed a little sawdust. The whole is thoroughly- 
moistened and kept for six or seven days where the tem- 
perature is regular from 60 to 70 degrees F. Moisture 
should be added once a day during the test. All ears that 
do not show a vigorous germination should be discarded. 

292. Methods of planting com. — There are three 
methods of planting corn in the cotton-belt. These are: 
(1) drilling; (2) checking; (3) listing. The most profitable 
method will be determined by a number of factors, most 
important of which are soil topography, injury from 
weeds and grass, moisture supply, and cost of farm labor. 

Drilling. — The greater part of the corn crop in the 
cotton-belt is, at present, planted in drills. The rolUng 
lands so often suffer from washing that it is necessary 
to preserve them as much as possible by running the rows 
at right angles to the slope of the hill, rather than by plant- 
ing the corn in check-rows. Each row forms a miniature 
terrace and erosion is thus reduced to a minimum or in 
many cases, entirely prevented. It is also easier to place 
fertilizer evenly under drills than under hills. Contrary 
to the rather general impression that heavier yields are 
made when the corn is planted in drills, which distribute 
the plants evenly over the ground, than when it is planted 
in check-rows, nearly all of the experiments so far con- 
ducted have shown no difference, or comparatively small 
differences due to methods of distribution, when the num- 
ber of plants to the acre remain the same. Land that is 



240 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

in such a condition as to necessitate planting on narrow 
beds or ridges makes checking impractical. Also a large 
percentage of the corn land in the South is cut up into 
small irregular shaped fields that do not admit of the ready 
use of any except one-horse drills in planting. The fact 
that one-horse drills are much cheaper than check-row 
planters is partially responsible for their more general use. 
In regions where the land is level or gently sloping, two- 
horse drills are coming into general use. 

Checking corn. — By this practice the grains are planted 
in hills so that the rows will run both ways, and can be 
cross-cultivated. Its advantages over drilling relate 
largely to economy of production rather than to larger 
yields. It is especially recommended for level lands that 
are foul, as it avoids the use of the hoe in keeping down 
weeds between plants in the drill. Corn is usually checked 
by using a two-horse check-rower. This is an adjustable 
implement which permits the planter to space the rows 
and the distance between the hills to suit the requirements 
of the land. By means of a wire chain stretched across the 
field one man and team can plant in straight rows in both 
directions, 12 or 15 acres a day. Corn is sometimes 
checked by hand, the rows being carefully .laid off at 
uniform distances each way. The seed is dropped where 
the furrows intersect. 

As the price of farm labor in the cotton-belt advances, 
the practice of checking corn will become more general 
on the level lands, and the la;borious practice of "hoeing 
corn" will be abandoned. 

Listing corn. — The practice of planting corn in a deep 
furrow made with a double-mold-board plow known as a 
"lister" has become quite general in the drier regions 
west of the Mississippi River. Usually the furrows are 



PLANTING AND CULTIVATING THE CORN CROP 241 

opened and the corn planted without any previous prep- 
aration of the land. As a rule, this practices cannot ha 
reconmiended, especially if the soil is stiff and heavy. 
The land should be plowed in the fall to conserve moisture. 
If it is not desirable to flat-break the land the lister may 
be run in the fall and the land kept harrowed during the 
winter. In the spring the ridges may be split out with 
the lister and the corn planted. 

When planted in a deep furrow the corn is better enabled 
to endure drought, the plants are not so easily blown down, 
and weeds in the corn rows are more easily covered by 
cultivation. The chief advantage is that of inducing the 
plants to root deeply in the soil. Listing corn should not 
be attempted except in regions of deficient rainfall, and 
preferably only on the loamy or sandy soils. 

Planting corn in the water furrow is practiced with 
excellent results on the permeable sandy hill or ridge 
lands of the South. By back-furrowing, ridges are made 
about five feet apart. Usually a narrow strip about 
eight inches wide between the ridgeS is left unbroken 
until planting time. This is thrown out with a shovel 
plow and the seed planted immediately. This method 
cannot be recommended for heavy soils, or soils well sup- 
plied with moisture. 

293. Time of planting. — Tliroughout the cotton- 
belt it is the general experience that corn planted early 
yields better than medium or late plantings. While the 
planting season is much longer in the cotton-belt than in 
regions farther North, the growing season is so often 
shortened by the mid-summer and fall drought as to render 
the late plantings very uncertain. Late planted corn 
matures in less time than the early plantings. This tends 
towards decreased yields. Growing conditions are most 



242 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

favorable in the spring and early summer. Corn should 
be planted sufficiently early to reap the advantages of 
these favorable conditions. Also the attacks of bud- 
worms are often escaped by planting the crop early. Where 
corn is subject to injury by bud-worms it should be planted 
either as early as possible or rather late. The late planted 
corn rapidly grows beyond the stage in which it is attacked 
by these insects. Also the soil becomes so warm as to 
discourage them. It is thought that late planting re- 
duces the injury from weevil by reason of the late date of 
maturity. 

While the early plantings, as a rule, give the best results 
nothing is to be gained by putting seed in soil that is too 
cold or too wet to favor germination. Planting should 
always be deferred until the ground is sufficiently dry to 
work well and warm enough for immediate growth. In 
the southernmost part of the cotton-belt, corn planting 
begins in February and becomes general by the first of 
March. As one proceeds North the average date of the 
planting season gradually becomes later, being March 
15th for the middle part of the Gulf states, and April 
1st to 15th for the northern part. The optimum season 
for planting corn in the different regions of the United 
States is shown on page 243. 

294. Depth of planting. — This varies with the tem- 
perature and moisture of the soil. As a rule early planting 
should be shallow, not over one inch, as at this tune only 
the surface soil is warm enough to germinate the seed. 
Stiff heavy clays, especially those lacking in humus, 
should be planted shallow, otherwise rains may so pack 
the soil as to prevent the seed from coming to a stand. 
The lighter, sandy soils should be planted deeper to insure 
sufficient moisture for germination. These soils also warm 



PLANTING AND CULTIVATING THE CORN CROP' 243 
Table 21. Time of Planting Corn in Certain Regions ' 











Planting 


Region 


Beginning 


General 


Ending 


Period, 
Days 


Gulf States 


March 15 


April 5 


May 10 


55 


Centi:al States: 










(Virginia to 










Kansas) .... 


April 15 


May 1 


May 25 


40 


Northern States: 










(New York to 










Minnesota) . 


May 10 


May 20 


June 1 


20 



up readily in the spring. In dry regions it is often neces- 
sary to plant corn three or four inches deep. As a rule 
planting deeper than two inches is undesirable. When 
the seed is planted deep much of the food supply stored 
in the grain must be consumed before the young plant can 
establish its root-system, reach the surface, and expand 
its leaves. As the depth to which the seed is covered does 
not influence the depth of the root-system, the primary 
consideration is securing sufficient warmth and moisture 
to insure favorable germination and immediate growth. 
295. Importance of getting a stand. — Every missing 
plant means wasted land and labor and decreased yield. 
As a rule replanting does not pay. The replants seldom 
produce much grain owing to the fact that they are sur- 
rounded by plants that mature their pollen before the 
younger silks are formed, and the pollination of the later- 
planted stalks is incomplete. Also the replants are often 
cut short by dry weather. Precaution should be taken 
to secure a favorable stand at the first planting. Where 



1 U. S. Dep't of Agr. Yearbook 1910, p. 491. 



244 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

a very poor stand has been secured, the better plan would 
be to make an entire new planting. 

296. Distance between rows and hills. — The proper 
spacing of corn plants is affected so much by local condi- 
tions that little specific information on this point can be 
given. It is a question that each farmer must decide, by 
observation and experience, for himself. The following 
general facts should be kept in mind: 

(1) For greatest production thicker planting should be 
practiced on rich soils, and soils supplied with an abun- 
dance of moisture, than on poor or droughty soils. 

(2) Varieties with small or medium sized stalks should 
be planted thicker than those with large stalks. 

When corn is planted too thick the weight of stover 
increases and the production of good ears decreases. Too 
thin spacing will decrease the yield of both stover and 
grain. 

Distances that are widely applicable in the cotton- 
belt are: (1) for soils of low fertility, rows 5 feet 
apart and plants 3 feet, or checks approximately 3 feetj 
10 inches each way; (2) for soils of medium produc- 
tiveness, rows 4^2 feet apart and plants 23/^ feet, or 
checks 3 feet, 4 inches each way; (3) for fertile soils 
well supplied with moisture, rows 4 feet apart and plants 
114 feet, or checks 33^ feet apart each way with two 
plants in a hill. 

Distance tests at the Alabama and Georgia stations 
show a small increase in yield from so dividing the 
space allowed for each plant as to give practically the 
same distance between plants as between rows. How- 
ever, wider rows permit of more economical cultiva- 
tion and as the difference is small it can be well sac- 
rificed. 



PLANTING AND CULTIVATING THE CORN CROP 245 



CULTIVATINC THE CROP 

297. The objects of interculture in corn production 
are: (1) the destruction of weeds; (2) the conservation of 
moisture; (3) increasing the availahiHty of plant-food by 
soil aeration, and (4) preventing run-off of rainfall by 
keeping the surface loose and porous. 

The relative value of each of the above objects will 
vary according to locality and season. On all soils in arid 
regions, except the adobe soils, the conservation of mois- 
ture is of first importance whereas the soil aeration re- 
sulting from interculture has little or no value owing to 
the natm-al high porosity of arid soils. Numerous care- 
fully conducted experiments have shown that in humid 
regions the destruction of weeds is unquestionably the 
function of primary importance in crop cultivation. This 
function may, however, take a secondary place during 
seasons of limited rainfall or periods of protracted drought. 
Again on certain compact clays in humid regions, soil 
aeration may become paramount among the objects of 
interculture. The studious farmer will become familiar 
with the objects of interculture and will strive to secure 
them to the greatest degree without injuriously mutilating 
the root-system of his crop. 

298. Importance of thorough early cultivation. — For 
best results corn must make a steady vigorous growth 
from germination to maturity. The effects of an unfavor- 
able condition which checks the early growth of the crop 
cannot be overcome by any amount of subsequent culti- 
vation. Thrifty, strong, thick corn plants are most gen- 
erally the result of proper treatment during their early 
growth. 

The seed-bed being properly prepared, cultivation should 



246 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

begin soon after planting. Horse weeders or the common 
smoothing harrow should be used as often as needed to 
break a surface crust or to kill weeds during their early 
growth. Weeds are most easily and economically de- 
stroyed when they are only a few days old. For trashy 
land the weeder is preferable to the smoothing harrow. 
The use of the weeder or harrow should be continued 
until the corn is six or eight inches high. These imple- 
ments are light and do not penetrate the soil deeply. 
Consequently wide ones can be used and a large area of 
land passed over in a day. These are the most economical 
cultivations that the crop receives. 

299. Cultivation by separate rows. — When the corn 
reaches a height that will not permit the use of weeders 
or harrows, tillage by separate rows should begin. On 
level land two-horse cultivators should be used until the 
corn gets so tall that the rows cannot be straddled without 
injury to the plants. High-priced labor makes the use of 
these improved implements imperative. Late cultivations 
may be given with one-horse implements. When it is 
necessary to use cultivators while the plants are quite 
small, fenders should be attached to prevent injuring the 
plants or covering them with clods. 

300. Depth and frequency of cultivation. — Under 
certain conditions the first cultivation by separate rows 
may be deep and thorough, as when heavy rains before 
or after planting have rendered the soil so compact as to 
form a poorly aerated seed-bed. All other cultivations 
should be shallow. The object should be to maintain at 
all times a uniform soil mulch covering the entire space 
between the rows. The most desirable depth of mulch 
will tlepend on conditions. Where rainfall is abundant 
the mulch should not be deeper than 2}^ inches. Where 



PLANTING AND CULTIVATING THE CORN CROP 247 

droughts are common or in regions of scanty rainfall a 
cfepth of 3 or 4 inches may be necessary. Whatever the 
conditions, the desired depth of mulch should be estab- 
lished "while the corn is young and no attempt should be 
made to deepen it later in the season; such a practice is 
sure to check the growth of the crop by mutilating its 
root-system. 

Corn should be cultivated often enough to keep down 
weeds and maintain constantly a loose mulch on the soil. 
In humid regions this usually necessitates cultivating the 
crop every ten to twelve days. As a rule the cultivations 
are given less frequently than is desirable. 

301. Value of late cultivation.. — Most farmers "lay 
by" corn too soon. Conditions often demand that the 
crop be cultivated after the plants are tasseling. These 
late cultivations should be exceptionally shallow. The 
prejudice that has sprung up against cultivating corn 
late is due largely to a disregard for proper precautions, 
especially as regards depth of cultivating. At this season 
the roots are very near the surface. This is especially 
true if the later part of the growing season has been ex- 
cessively rainy. 

302. Kinds of cultivators. — Cultivators are of two 
general types: shovel cultivators and disk cultivators. 
The evolution of the shovel cultivator is briefly sum- 
marized in the following statement by Montgomery: ^ 

"The first horse cultivators were single shovel plows 
consisting of a very broad mold-board shovel mounted on a 
beam, with handles to guide. Later two narrower shovels 
were substituted for the single broad shovel. Though this 
was an improvement, it was still necessary to go twice 
in each row for thorough cultivation. Later two of these 
1 Montgomery, E. G., " Corn Crops,'' p. 199. 



248 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

double shovel plows were rigged on a two-wheel sulky, 
thus enabling the operator with two horses to cultivate 
both sides of a row at one time. The corn cultivator 
is still built essentially on this principle with many 
types of shovels and improvements for ease in con- 
trolling." 

One-horse shovel cultivators are still quite extensively 
used in the cotton-belt. They are usually equipped with 
many small points, or with various forms of heel-scrapes, 
or sweeps. These one-horse implements are gradually 
being replaced by two-horse cultivators. The double 
cultivators are made either with handles, as walking 
cultivators, or with a seat, as riding cultivators. Two- 
rowed cultivators equipped with four gangs of shovels 
and drawn by three horses are little used as yet, in the 
cotton-belt. These implements are rapidly coming into 
favor with the corn growers of the central prairie 
states. 

The kind of shovels that should be used on corn culti- 
vators is determined somewhat by the character of the 
soil. The object should be to break the soil between the 
I'ows thoroughly to the proper depth without leaving it 
in ridges. This result is usually most satisfactorily ac- 
complished by decreasing the size of the shovels and in- 
creasing their number. Sweeps give good results on 
friable soils. They vary in width from six to thirty inches. 
"When used they should be so adjusted as to allow the soil 
to pass over them and fall level behind the cultivator. 
Any form of shovel that will do good work on a single- 
cultivator can be readily attached to a double-cultivator. 

Disk cultivators, when properly operated, do excellent 
work, especially on soils that are in poor physical condition 
and need pulverizing. 



PLANTING AND CULTIVATING THE CORN CROP 240 

303. The Mclver Williamson method of com produc- 
tion. — Within recent years much lias been written with 
reference to a system of corn culture originated by Mclver 
WiUiamson of South Carolina. In devising this method 
Williamson had for his primary object the stunting of 
the corn during its early growth so as to prevent the pro- 
duction of stalk at the expense of grain. The essence of 
the Williamson method is thus summarized by the Georgia 
Station : ^ 

"First. Breaking the land broadcast and deeper than 
is customary. Using disc plow in preference to old two- 
horse plow. 

"Second. No fertilizer at or previous to the time of 
planting, thus hindering growth. 

"Third. Rows six feet apart, plants eleven inches in 
the drill. 

"Fourth. Feeding the plants with an open hand — thus: 
200 pounds of cotton-seed meal; 200 pounds of acid phos- 
phate; 400 pounds of kainit, making 800 pounds an acre 
of high grade material, carefully mixed. In addition to 
the 800 pounds, fed as the plants grow, 125 pounds of 
nitrate of soda per acre as a side application. 

"Fifth. Planting soon as all danger of frost is 
passed. 

"Sixth. When plants are 12 to 18 inches in height, 
begin to feed them; then follows rapid and shallow culti- 
vation." 

Several stations have compared the above method of 
corn production with the ordinary method in which the 
fertilizers were added before planting, and frequent and 
thorough cultivation given from the start. The results 
of these tests have in almost all cases favored the ordinary 
^ Summarized from Bui. 97, Ga. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



250 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON BELT 



method. Three years' results from the Georgia Station 
are given below: 



Table 22. Showing Corn. Yields from Williamson Method as 
Compared with Ordinary Method of Corn Production ^ 





Bushels of Shelled Corn per Acre 


Method 


1908 


1909 


1910 


Average 


Ordinary Method 

Williamson Method. . . . 


34.11 

22.87 


26.19 
34.23 


42.25 
40.78 


34.18 
32.62 



Notet— For complete discussion of the Williamson method of corn 
culture, see bulletins 78, 84, 88, and 97 of the Georgia Station. 



^ Summarized from Bui. 97, Ga. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



CHAPTER XXI 

HARVESTING AND STORING THE CORN CROP 

Within the last fifteen years much progress has been 
made in the methods of harvesting the corn crop in the 
cotton-belt. Yet it is unquestionably true that the har- 
vesting practices now in general use by the southern 
corn-growers are more crude and unprofitable than those 
commonly employed by farmers in any other region of 
the United States. The primary reasons for the southern 
farmers' relatively slow progress in corn harvesting meth- 
ods are: (1) the limited area devoted to corn on the aver- 
age cotton-belt farm; (2) the poor adaptability of a large 
percentage of southern farms, as regards size, shape, and 
topography of fields, to the use of improved machinery; 
(3) the excessive height to which southern corn grows 
under certain conditions, rendering the use of the corn 
harvester impractical; (4) the climatic conditions in the 
greater part of the cotton-belt are more unfavorable to the 
proper field curing of corn fodder than in other regions 
of the United States. 

HARVESTING CORN 

304. Time of harvesting. — Corn should be harvested 
when the largest amount of digestible food can be 
secured. Both the total dry weight and valuable feed- 
ing nutrients continue to increase until the crop is 

251 



252 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



mature as shown by the following data from the Michi- 
gan Station: 

Table 23. Yield to the Acre of Dry Weight and Feeding 
Nutrients in Corn 





Dry 

Matter, 
Pounds 


Protein, 
Pounds 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
Extract, 

Pounds 


Fat, 
Pounds 


Fiber, 
Pounds 


Plants in tassel 
Ears in milk . . 
Ears in glazing 
Ears ripe 


3,670 
5,320 
7,110 
8,020 


472.7 
576.0 
711.0 
693.0 


1,828 
3,212 
4,554 
5,356 


67.9 
143.1 
^99.0 
242.6 


1,010 
1,148 
1,294 
1,413 



The foregoing data emphasize the folly of harvesting 
corn before the ears are hard and glazed, even though the 
stover is to be utilized for feeding stock. 

When the silo first came into use it was thought neces- 
sary to fill it with corn cut in a green and very succulent 
condition. Experience has shown the erroneousness of 
this idea. The best corn silage is now made when the crop 
is allowed to stand until it has reached that degree of ma- 
turity indicated by rather hard, well dented or glazed ker- 
nels and partially dried husks before it is put in the silo. 
At this stage the crop still contains enough water to pack 
sufficiently close in the silo to exclude practically all the 
air and make a silage of high quality. 

305. Methods of harvesting. — There are four meth- 
ods of harvesting corn in the cotton-belt as follows: 

(1) Stripping the leaves while green for forage and 
harvesting the ears later. 

(2) Cutting the tops above the ears for forage, the ears 
being harvested later. 



HARVESTING AND STORING THE CORN CROP 253 

(3) Harvesting the ears and leaving stalks and leaves 
in the field. 

(4) Harvesting entire plant for fodder or silage. 

306. Effect of method of harvesting on yield of grain. — 
The practice of stripping the blades while they are green, 
or of cutting the tops above the ear for forage is espe- 
cially common in the South. These methods are founded 
upon the belief that the best quality of forage is thus 
secured and the yield of grain is not affected, whereas it 
is thought that harvesting of the entire plant as fodder 
materially reduces the yield of grain. These methods 
of harvesting have been investigated by a number of 
stations, especially those located in the cotton-belt, with 
the result that the loss of shelled corn from stripping and 
topping while the leaves are still green generally amounted 
to 10 to 20 per cent. This is not far from the average loss 
sustained when the entire plant is harvested for fodder. 
The ]\Iississippi Station,^ as a result of three years' trials, 
found a net loss in feeding value, from topping, of more 
than 20 per cent. The combined results of seven other 
stations show an average loss from topping of thirteen 
bushels an acre, which was said to be "more than the 
feeding value of the 'fodder' secured." 

The Florida Station ^ found that "pulling fodder" 
promotes the ravages of the weevil by loosening the husks 
on the ear before the grains become hard. 

If the practice of "topping" corn or of "stripping" 
the blades is deferred until the kernels have become 
hard and glazed as indicated by the husks and a large 
percentage of the lower leaves having dried up the yield 
of grain may be decreased very little if at all. In this 

1 Miss. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui., 33, p. 53. 
•' Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui., 16, p. 8. 



254 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



event, however, the quaUty of the forage would be very 
poor. 

The Alabama Station has investigated the yields of 
corn from different methods of harvesting with the results 
shown in the following table: 



Table 24. Yields to the Acre of Corn from Different 
Methods of Harvesting ^ 



Methods of 
Harvesting 


CoR>f PER Acre — Bushels 


1896 


1897 


1900 


1904 


Average 
4 years 


Average 
loss 


Only ears harvested . . . 

Tops cut and ears har- 
vested 

Entire plant cut and 
shocked 


34.4 
30.2 
29.2 


31.0 
29.2 
29.5 


46.9 
44.3 
44.3 
45.9 


25.7 
26.1 
25.4 
25.5 


34.5 
32.5 
32.1 


2.0 
2 4 


Blades stripped and ears 
harvested 





307. Yields of forage by dififerent methods of harvest- 
ing com. — The decrease in yield of grain due to pulling 
the blades or cutting the tops from corn is not the only 
objectional feature about these methods. They are slow, 
laborious and expensive methods of securing forage. The 
yield of forage to the acre seldom justifies the expenditure 
in labor. With the present advance in the price of 
farm labor, it is quite evident that corn-growers can 
no longer adhere to these unprofitable practices. The 
same amount of time expended in growing and har- 
vesting hay crops will be much more remunerative. 
Yields of cured corn tops, stover and blades from the 
different methods of harvesting are reported by the 
Alabama Station: 



1 Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 134, p. 190. 



HARVESTING AND STORING THE CORN CROP 255 
Table 25. Yields of Cured Corn Tops, Stover and Blades ^ 



Methods of 
Harvestino 


Average 

Yield or 

Grain, 

Bu. 


Yields of Foraoe to the Acre — Pounds 


1890 


1897 


1900 


1904 


Average 


Only ears harvested . 
Tops cut and ears 

harvested 

Entire stalk cut and 

ears afterwards 

harvested 

Blades stripped and 

ears harvested .... 


34.5 
32.5 

32,1 


312 
2103 


509 
1355 


711 

1759 
615 


3G0 

1980 
415 


473 tops 

1799 stover 
515 blades 



With the yields of grain given above, which are far above 
the average for the cotton-belt states, less than one-fourth 
ton of tops is secured from an acre and approximately 
one-fourth ton of blades. The value of the forage thus 
secured cannot compensate for the loss of grain and the 
cost of harvesting. 

308. Cutting and shocking the entire plant. — Experi- 
ments conducted by the Alabama Station indicate that 
cutting and shocking corn is more profitable than "top- 
ping." If done at the proper time, the yield of grain is 
not materially decreased. By this method all the forage 
is saved at a minimum expense and the early use of the 
land for the next crop is secured. Also the old stalks are 
not left on the land to interfere with the seeding of small 
grain. Farmers in the more humid sections of the cotton- 
belt are somewhat averse to cutting and shocking corn 
owing to the danger of losing the crop by "rotting" before 
it can be shredded or otherwise housed from the weather. 
This danger can be much reduced by decreasing both the 
size of the bundles and the size of the shocks. 

309. Harvesting the ears only. — In sections where 
hay is easily and cheaply produced, harvesting only the 

I Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 134, p. 190. 



256 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



ears and leaving the leaves and stalks to be subsequently 
pastured or to be plowed into the soil, is highly commend- 
able. The ears may be husked directly from the standing 
stalks and thrown into a wagon at the same operation. 
A "throwboard" about 30 inches high should be put on 
the wagon-box on the side opposite the husker. This 



k=^ 



(^=^ 




Fig. 40. — Corn harvesting tools: 1, corn hook; 2 and 3, corn knives; 
4, a sled cutter; 5, cutter having wheels substituted for the runners 
and equipped with a seat. 

is the method most generally used throughout the corn- 
belt states. 

310. Hand methods of cutting com. — When cutting 
and shocking is resorted to in the cotton-belt the cutting 
is usually done by hand. Various types of hand cutters 
are used. The short-handled hoe probably came into 
use first. Later various types of corn knives and corn 
''hooks" were used. Some of these simple devices are 
shown in Fig. 40. Where the area to cut does not exceed 
twenty acres or where the corn is very tall, hand-cutting 



HARVESTING AND STORING THE CORN CROP 257 

is more profitable than maintaining expensive machinery 
for the purpose. In fact, where farm labor is not excep- 
tionally high harvesting even larger areas by hand is al- 
most as cheap as harvesting by' machinery. The advan- 
tage of the machine is that it enables the operation to 
be completed in a shorter time. 

311. Comparative cost of harvesting by different 
methods. — Zintheo ^ has made a study of the com- 
parative cost of harvesting corn by different methods. 
The following data were obtained from the corn-belt where 
an average yield of 44 bushels to the acre was being secured : 

Table 26. Cost of Harvesting by Different Methods 
A verage data for harvesting by hand 

Cost of implement $ 1 . 00 

Acres one man harvests per day 1 . 47 

Cost of cutting and shocking 1 .50 an acre 

A verage data for harvesting ivith sled harvester 

Cost of implement $5 to $50 

Acres two men and one horse harvest per day 4 . 67 

Cost of cutting and shocking 1 . 18 an acre 

Average data for harvesting with corn binder 

Cost of implement $125 . 00 

Acres cut per day by one man and three horses .... 7 . 73 

Acres shocked per day, one man 3.31 

Cost of cutting and shocking 1 .50 an acre 

Cost "per bushel of picking and husking corn 

Cent& 

By hand from field 3.5 

Team for cribbing 1 . 

By hand from shock 5.3 

Team for cribbing .79 

By corn picker from field 4.1 

By huskers and shredder from shock 4.5 

1 U. S. Dep't of Agr., Office of Exp. Sta., Bui. 173, 



i 



258 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

312. Com harvesting machinery. — The simplest 
horse-drawn implement for harvesting corn is the sled 
cutter, Fig. 40. One type of sled cutter consists of an 
ordinary sled with a heavy knife attached in front at the 
proper height to cut off the corn plants. It is drawn 
astride of the corn row. Other types have a heavy knife 
attached to one or both sides and are drawn between the 
rows of plants. A further improvement is the use of small 
wheels in place of sled runners. This greatly reduces the 
draft of pulling the cutter. Usually a man on each side 
catches the stalks as they are cut. When an armful has 
been obtained the horse is stopped and the fodder put 
on the nearest shock. These simple horse drawn cutters 
can be constructed on the farm at little expense. As there 
is no expense for twine or repairs, they furnish one of the 
most economical means of harvesting the corn crop. 

About 1895 the corn binder came into use. This ma- 
chine binds the plants into bundles of convenient size; on 
it is a bundle-carrier attachment that bunches the bundles, 
whereby shocking and loading are greatly facilitated. 
For cutting corn of medium or small size on land that is 
comparatively level and free of stumps, the corn binder 
is very satisfactory. On the rich river bottom soils of 
the cotton-belt the corn grows so tall and bears its ears so 
high on the stalk as to render the use of the corn binder 
impractical. 

By attaching a "stubble cutter" to the corn binder one 
may cut the corn stubs as the plants are harvested. This 
is an excellent practice as it not only hastens the decay 
of the stubble but leaves the ground in an excellent con- 
dition for the succeeding crop. 

313. Shocking corn. — Two important precautions 
must be taken in shocking corn in the humid sections of 



HARVESTING AND STORING THE CORN CROP 259 

the cotton-belt: (1) the plants must be tied in small bun- 
dles if the binder is used; (2) the shocks must be small. 
When cured the fodder may be put in large shocks or 
stacked. It is of paramount importance that the shocks 
be so made and tied that they will stand erect and keep 
the fodder dry. A shocking horse, Fig. 41, is very service- 
able for shocking where the corn is cut either by hand or 









^^^J 


^- --ffjRjj 


Sii 


■II[Hb 


^M ,,. ^^J^H^fl 


Km 




1 'iJjMlS^ia^" -^^^W^Pf^iomf^ 


1 



Fig. 41. — A corn-shocking horse. 

with the binder. If a shocking horse is not available, 
the stalks of four adjoining hills may be twisted together 
at proper intervals through the field. These four stalks 
will then form "gallowses" to support the plants in the 
beginning of the shock. When one cuts corn by hand for 
small shocks, many unnecessary steps can be saved by 
following the system outlined in Fig. 42. Hills 1 to 8 make 
the first arm load and should be cut in consecutive order. 
Likewise hills 9 to 16 make the second arm load and 



260 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



so on as indicated until the 64 hills have been cut and 
shocked. 

314. Husking com. — Much of the corn in the South 
is stored unhusked owing to the somewhat prevalent 
belief that the husks serve as a partial protection from 
the grain- weevil. The correctness of this belief is doubtful 
as more weevils are transferred to the crib with the un- 



36 
37 


35 
38 


34 
39 


33 


28 
29 
32 


27 
26 
25 


£8 
59 
60 


57 

56 
55 
54 


30 
31 


3 

4 


2 
5 
6 


1 

8 
7 


> 




23 
24 
17 


22 
21 
18 


40 
41 
42 

43 


20 
19 


46 
45 

44 


3 

10 

11 


16 
13 
12 


15 

14 


53 
43 


52 
49 


51 
50 


47 



Fig. 42. — Illustrating a method of cutting and shock- 
ing checked corn to economize steps. 

husked ears than where the husks are removed at a time 
previous to storing. 

Where husking is done before storing one of the follow- 
ing practices is employed, according to the method of 
harvesting the crop: (1) the ears jerked and afterwards 
husked; (2) ears husked from the standing stalks; (3) ears 
husked from the shock; (4) ears husked by means of 
shredder. A very convenient way is to husk from the 
standing stalks, the ears being thrown directly into a 
wagon equipped with a throwboard. Jerking the corn 
and afterwards husking it requires much additional labor, 



HARVESTING AND STORING THE CORN CROP 261 




peg 
The 

former is used for husk- 
ing fodder corn, the lat- 
ter for husking standing 
corn. 



the cost of which cannot be offset by the amount of forage 
furnished by the husks. When husking is done from the 
standing stalks, "lands" should be laid out and driven 
around so that the huskers are always on the same side 
of the wagon. This avoids husking many rows that have 
been broken down by the wagon. 
Convenient forms of husking pegs 
and hooks, are shown in Fig. 43. 

315. Shredding com. — The use 
of the corn shredder in the cotton- 
belt is very limited. This machine 
takes the stalks with the ears and ^^^ndfusTin'^^hor 
husks and delivers the ears to a 
basket for storing, and shreds the 
stalks for feeding. The shredded 
stover is delivered to the loft, usually by means of a 
blowpipe. In the cotton-belt shredding should never be 
done except when the fodder is very dry; otherwise the 
shredded fodder will heat. It should always be stored 
under shelter after shredding. 

Many advantages are derived from shredding corn 
rather than feeding it whole, chief of which are: (1) it 
may be fed with much less waste, it being estimated that 
"shredded stover will go 40 per cent farther in feeding 
cattle than the whole stalks;" (2) it puts the stover in a 
convenient form for storing and for feeding; (3) the 
troublesome work of handling manure in which there 
are long coarse stalks is avoided; (4) the ears are husked 
with little expense. 



STORING CORN 



316. Cribs. — Corn ears are usually stored in cribs 
or bins although rail pens are used for this purpose in 



262 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

some sections. Storing corn in rail pens is not to be 
commended. 

The principal aims to be kept in mind in constructing 
corn-cribs in the cotton-belt vary somewhat with condi- 
tions. In sections where weevil damage is not great, the 
primary objects should be good ventilation and protection 
from rodents, such as rats and mice. Ventilation is usually 
secured by constructing the sides of the crib of narrow 
slats nailed in a horizontal position on the inside of the 
framing. Ventilated sheet-iron cribs are now on the mar- 
ket. Cribs are made rodent-proof in the process of con- 
struction by tacking wire netting of about one-fourth inch 
mesh over the sleepers, the inside of the uprights, and to 
the joists; the crib is thus lined completely with this 
material. The wire netting is held in place by putting 
the flooring and side strips on over it, and tacking the wire 
well to the joists. The floor should be at least 20 inches 
from the ground to give good ventilation and avoid mak- 
ing a hiding place for rats. 

Where weevils damage the stored corn, the cribs should 
be tightly constructed so as to permit of the successful 
use of an insecticide. In storing corn in close cribs one 
should take precautions to see that the ears are well dried 
out; otherwise dampness and lack of ventilation will cause 
the grain to rot in the crib. The treatment of stored grain 
to prevent weevil damage is discussed in the chapter on 
insect enemies of corn. 

317. Shrinkage of stored com. — Stored corn may 
lose in weight after being stored, amounting to 5 to 20 
per cent, due primarily to the loss of water. The amount 
of loss depends upon the moisture content of the corn 
when stored, the length of the storage period and the 
humidity of the atmosphere during storage. An average 



HARVESTING AND STORING THE CORN CROP 263 

of eight years' results on the shrinkage of stored corn at 
the Iowa Station is given: 

Table 27. Average of Eight Years' Results on Shrinkage 
OF Stored Corn at the Iowa Station, Given by Months 



Month 


Average Shrinkage 
(Per Cent) 


Average Shrinkage 
Per Month 

(Per Cent) 


November 

December 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 


5.2 

6.9 

7.5 

7.8 

9.7 

12.8 

14.7 

16.3 

17.3 

17.8 

18.2 

18.2 


5.2 

1.7 

.6 

.3 

1.9 

3.1 

1.9 

1.6 

1.0 

.5 


September 

October 


.4 
.0 



318. Measuring com in the crib. — A rule for measur- 
ing corn in the crib can be only approximately correct as the 
moisture content and hence the weight per unit volume of 
stored corn varies considerably. Usually a bushel of husked 
ear-corn will occupy approximately 23/^ cubic feet of space. 
C. S. Plumb in his book on " Indian Corn Culture " gives the 
following rule for measuring husked ear-corn in the crib: 
"Multiply the length, breadth and height of the crib to- 
gether in feet to obtain the cubic feet of space it contains. 
Multiply this product by four (4), strike off the right-hand 
figure, and the result will be the number of shelled bushels." 
This rule really figures 2]^ cubic feet of corn as a bushel. 
The legal weight of a bushel of corn when dry and sound is 
56 pounds of shelled corn or 70 pounds of ear-corn. 



CHAPTER XXII 

ANIMAL AND INSECT ENEMIES AND FUNGOUS 
DISEASES OF CORN 

Corn is preyed on by numerous enemies, including 
crows, rodents, insects, and fungi. Seldom do any of 
these destroy the entire crop. The corn crop is more 
easily protected from its enemies than are most other 
important crops. 

ANIMAL ENEMIES 

319. Treatment. — Rodents of different kinds, par- 
ticularly ground squirrels, sometimes dig up and eat the 
seeds of corn soon after planting. As a partial preventive 
of this injury the seed may be treated with coal tar before 
it is planted. The usual method is to stir the seed with a 
paddle that has been dipped in hot coal tar. This practice 
is repeated until every seed is covered with a thin coating 
of the tar. The seed is allowed to dry before being planted. 
Corn that has been soaked in a strychnine solution may 
be planted a few days ahead of the regular planting, thus 
poisoning the rodents. 

Crows do some damage, particularly in regions where 
the acreage in corn is comparatively small. In order to get 
the kernels they pull up the young plants for a period of 
ten days after the plants appear above ground. Usually 
they will not trouble a field for several days after a few of 
them have been poisoned. Corn that has been soaked for a 
day or two in a strychnine solution should be placed about 

264 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF CORN 265 

the field soon after the crop is planted and before the crows 
begin their depredations. Alcohol dissolves strychnine 
more readily than water and its use is therefore recom- 
mended. In small fields, scarecrows, or a string stretched 
over the field with pieces of paper attached at frequent 
intervals, are rather effective. 

INSECT ENEMIES 

320. Causes. — Insect injuries to corn are more com- 
mon in the southern states than in the northern states. 
The larger number of these injuries ar6 due to the continu- 
ous cultivation of corn on the same land for a number of 
years. They also occur more frequently after plowing 
up sod land of long standing. Hence an important feature 
in the control of many of the insect enemies of corn is 
the adoption of short systematic rotations accompanied 
by clean culture of the intertilled crops in the rotation. 

321. Com bud-worms {Diahrotica 1 2-punctata) . — 
These slender worms represent the larval stage of a small 
beetle commonl}!- known as the twelve-spotted lady bug. 
These beetles are about one-third inch long, and yellowish 
green with twelve black spots on the wing coverings. The 
larvae are slender thread-like yellowish white worms with 
a brownish head. They are about one-half inch long. The 
winter is passed, in the adult stage under rubbish or trash 
or any material that will furnish adequate shelter. The 
life history of the corn bud-worm is briefly summarized 
by Sherman as follows: 

"The adults pass the winter, emerge very late in the 
spring, feeding on flowers and foliage, mate, and lay eggs 
at the base of corn or other plants in which the worms 
feed; the worms on hatching from the eggs, burrow into 
the root or stalk of the plant attacked, become grown in 



266 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

a few weeks, leave the plant and change to the pupa stage 
in the earth close by, from which the beetles emerge one 
to two weeks later. Several broods are produced in the 
course of a season." ^ 

The bud-worm injures the corn plants during their 
early growth, particularly when they are from one to ten 
inches high. It is worse on low moist bottom lands. 

Preventive measures are based largely on the time of 
planting. Lands subject to the ravages of this insect 
should not be planted until rather late in the season. 
Some farmers insist that bud-worm injury can be escaped 
by either very early or very late planting. Unquestionably 
the corn planted in midseason suffers most. Any treat- 
ment that stimulates a rapid growth of the plants seems 
to reduce the injury from bud-worms. Small amounts 
of nitrate of soda are sometimes applied at planting time 
for this purpose. 

322. Cut- worms (Noctuidce) . — There are several spe- 
cies of cut-worms that injure corn. They are all thick- 
bodied caterpillars of a brown, blackish, or grayish color, 
and constitute the larval stage of night-flying moths. 
During the winter months the larvae rest in an inactive 
state in the soil. When spring comes they feed on any 
green, succulent young plants that they can find. They eat 
off the young corn plants near the surface of the ground, 
often dragging the cut plants partially into the soil. Most 
of their injury is done at night unless the weather is cloudy, 
in which case they work during the day also. They are 
worse on sod land or land that has borne a heavy crop of 
weeds. 

For combating or evading cut-worms the important 
remedial measures are: (1) Early fall or winter plowing 
1 N. C. Dep't of Agr., Bui. 196, p. 23. 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF CORN 267 

thus destroying the larvse while they are hibernating; 
(2) moderately late planting which, to an extent, escapes 
the early crop of caterpillars; (3) early and frequent culti- 
vation which seems to disturb the dut-worms and thus 
check their ravages; (4) poisoning, by scattering clover 
or wheat bran that has been treated with paris-green or 
arsenate of lead, over the fields as a bait. Usually a mash 
is made of bran, paris-green and water and sweetened with 
molasses. This preparation is eaten readily by the worms 
and is very destructive. 

323. Wire-worms {Elateridce) . — These slender, smooth, 
firm-bodied worms are the larvse of the beetles com- 
monly called "Jack-snappers," "Hominy-beaters" or 
"Thumping-beaters." The larvse are of yellowish brown 
color and range from one to two inches in length. The 
eggs are usually deposited in sod land, each generation 
requiring from three to five years to reach complete 
maturity. Wire-worms may injure corn by eating the 
seed before it comes up, or by feeding on the roots or 
"drilHng" into the stalks just below the surface of the 
ground. The latter injury causes the center of the growing 
plant to die. They are worse on low lands or lands having 
been in sod. 

In sections where wire-worms are destructive the low 
sod lands should be planted in some crop other than corn 
for one or two years after it is first plowed. If this cannot 
be done the sod should be plowed in the fall and disked 
thoroughly once or twice during the winter. This treat- 
ment will either starve or kill by exposure many of the 
larvse. Any treatment, such as good fertilization or 
thorough and frequent tillage, that stimulates growth will 
enable the corn to recover more quickly from the attacks 
of wire-worms. 



268 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

324. The com eax-worm {Heliothis obsoleta) . — The 
description, habits and life history of this insect are given 
in paragraphs 160 to 164, on the cotton boll-worm which is 
the same insect as the corn ear-worm. The eggs being laid 
on the silks, "the larvse work down the silk, or bore directly- 
through the husk to the forming ear, where they feed on 
the kernels and soon attain full growth, when they burrow 
out through the husk and enter the ground to pupate." ^ 
The injury is not due alone to the loss of the kernels eaten 
but also to the fact that the burrows admit water to the 
ear causing it to rot. No absolute remedy is known. Fall 
and early winter plowing is recommended in that it de- 
stroys some of the insects while in the pupa stage. 

325. Chinch bugs (Blissus leucopterus) . — These in- 
sects are described as ''small bugs about one-fifth inch 
long, blackish with white wings, the young bugs reddish." 
The adults live over winter in grass or rubbish of any kind. 
When spring comes they fly in search of food, usually 
congregating in fields of small-grain where the eggs are 
deposited. The young bugs feed and grow to maturity 
on the small-grain. As the crop ripens the bugs go into 
corn fields in further search of food. Here the second 
brood of young develops. By means of their beaks the 
bugs suck the juices from the corn plants. 

It is during the time that the chinch bugs are passing 
from the fields of small-grain to corn that they are most 
easily destroyed. In making this trip the bugs do not fly, 
but walk or crawl on the ground. If one or two deep 
furrows are plowed around the small-grain fields, the dirt 
being thrown toward the field in which the bugs are con- 
gregated, an effective barrier against the insects is formed. 
Farmers often dig holes twenty feet apart in the bottom of 
1 N. C. Dep't of Agr., Bui. 196, p. 46. 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF CORN 



269 



these furrows, a practice that makes them still more effect- 
ive. The bugs crawl into the furrows and then along the 
bottom, finally falling into the holes from which they can- 
not escape. Putting a strip of tar around the field serves 
the same purpose. When furrows are 
used the soil in the furrow should be 
kept well pulverized. A heavy rain 
may destroy the effectiveness of the 
barrier, necessitating immediate re- 
plowing or dragging a log in the 
furrow. 

All grass and rubbish adjacent to 
corn fields should be burned during 
the winter as it is here that the bugs 
seem to hibernate. 

326. Grain moths and weevils. — 
Several species of small moths and 
weevils injure stored corn. Some of 
these do damage even before the grain 
is harvested while others may affect 
certain corn products such as meal and 
bran. Of the grain moths the Indian 
meal snout moth {Plodia interpundella) 
and the Angumois grain-moth {Sitotroga 
cerealella) are the most important. By 
far the most destructive of the grain 
weevils is the rice-weevil {Calandra 
oryza) commonly known as the "black 
weevil." These insects lay their eggs either on or in the 
. grain or husks and the larvae eat into the kernels (Fig. 44). 
B There is no absolute means of preventing or remedying the 
H. attacks of weevils on corn in the field. The injury can be 




Fig. 44. — Ear of corn 
showing character- 
istic injury by the 
corn-weevil. 



somewhat decreased by planting late varieties and par- 



'270 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT > 

ticularly those with hard grains. The selection of seed 
with the idea of getting a husk that fits tightly over 
the end of the ear has been found to decrease weevil 
injury. 

The most effective means of fighting the grain weevils 
or moths is that of fumigating the stored grain with the 
vapors of carbon-disulfide (CS2), which is a very volatile, 
colorless liquid. In order that this method may be used 
successfully, the grain must be stored in a bin or crib 
having unusually tight floors, walls, and roof so that^he 
vapors will be confined until they have thoroughly pen- 
etrated the entire mass of grain. Hinds ^ states that "it 
requires at least forty-five minutes' exposure to a very 
strong gas to kill the black weevil adults and the smaller 
brown beetles are still more resistant." The amount of 
carbon-disulflde to use to a 1000 cubic feet of volume to be 
fumigated is from ten to twelve pounds for a very tight 
crib to twenty-five pounds for one that is moderately tight. 
The liquid may be placed in shallow pans on top of the 
corn or it may be poured in small holes about the surface 
made by pulling out a few ears. It evaporates very rapidly 
and the vapors being heavier than air diffuse downward 
through the grain. The treatment will not injure the 
grain either for food or seed. Immediately after the treat- 
ment the crib should be tightly closed. The vapors of 
carbon-disulfide, when mixed with air form a gas that is 
easily exploded if brought in contact with fire. All lighted 
cigars, cigarettes, lanterns, and the like, must be kept away 
while the fumigating is being done. 

FUNGOUS DISEASES- 

Corn is remarkably free from fungous diseases. The 
1 Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 176, p. 65. 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF CORN 



271 



ones of importance are corn-smut (Ustilago zea) and 
different kinds of ear-rots. 

327. Com-smut (Fig. 45) often causes enormous en- 
largements on the ear, tassel, or stem of the corn plant. 
The infection usually does 
not occur until the plants 
are a foot or more high. 
The spores of the disease 
are carried over in the 
soil so that when land 
becomes infected with 
corn-smut it is likely to 
injure the crop each year 
unless some crop other 
than corn be grown, or 
unless precautions are 
taken to cut out and burn 
all infected plants before 
the smut-balls reach that 
stage of development at 
which the skin breaks and 
sets free the spores. The disease may also be carried from 
year to year in manure which has been made from feed- 
ing the diseased plants. No treatment of the seed is 
effective. 




Fig. 45. — Corn-smut. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
OATS {Avena saliva) 

The oat plant is a grass grown for both grain and forage. 
It is used largely in connection with or interchangeably 
with corn. Its principal use is as a food for horses, although 
its use as a food for cattle, sheep, and swine is very general. 
The oat grain when made into oatmeal and other cereal 
dishes constitutes an important human food. 

328. Origin and botanical classification. — The nativ- 
ity of the oat plant is rather uncertain, but from the avail- 
able evidence it is thought to be Tartary in western Asia, 
or eastern Europe. It came into use at a much later date 
than did wheat and barley. The early literature of China, 
India, and other ancient countries of southern Asia make 
no mention of oats and it is quite certain that this cereal 
was of minor importance in the early nurture of the human 
race. 

The botanical classification of the cultivated oat is 
shown: Order — Graminese; tribe — Avenae; genus — • 
Avena; species — sativa. 

Botanists have in the past usually held that all varieties 
of domesticated oats have descended from the wild oat, 
Avena fatua, a cold climate oat, which species is character- 
ized by the fact that the second flower separates easily 
from the axis on which it is borne, leaving the axis attached 
to the first flower. In other wild species, notably Avena 
sterilis, the second flower, when disarticulated, carries 

272 



OATS 273 

with it the axis on which it was borne. Trabut ^ has re- 
cently called attention to the fact that many cultivated 
varieties of oats, particularly those grown in the Mediter- 
ranean region, trace back to A. sterilis rather than A. fatua; 
also that the wild species A. barbata, a dry-region oat 
common throughout much of northern Africa, has given 
rise to some cultivated forms. The special adaptations 
of the descendants of these wild types are given in the 
following quotation from Trabut: 

"Avenafatua gives rise to oats adapted to temperate and 
mountainous regions; A vena sterilis, to oats adapted to the 
southern countries, and to saline soils; Avena barbata, to 
races adapted to dry countries." 

The oat varieties of the southern United States are all 
descendants oi Avena fatua. Among those who have given 
special study to the genetic history of oats some believe 
that oat production in the South could be made more prof- 
itable by the introduction and acclimatization of some of 
the cultivated descendants of Avena sterilis. 

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE OAT 

' 329. The plant. — The oat plant varies in height from 
two to five feet. The culms are hollow with closed joints. 
At each joint on the stem is borne a leaf consisting of leaf- 
sheath and blade. The sheath splits open on the side 
opposite the blade. The auricles, present in all other 
small-grains at the junction of the blade and sheath, are 
either absent or suppressed in oats. The leaf-blade of 
the oat plant is broader than that of wheat or rye. On its 
margin are small inconspicuous hairs. 

1 Dr. L. Trabut, " Origin of Cultivated Oats," Jour, of Her., Vol. 5, 
No. 2, 12, 56. 



274 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

330. The panicle. — The flowers and later the grain 
of oats are borne at the top of the plant on small branches. 
These branches, which extend in all directions, are arranged 
in whorls at intervals along the central rachis or flower- 
stem. There are from three to five of these whorls, the 
branches varying somewhat in length and position. The 
entire seed-bearing part is called a panicle. Depending 
on the arrangement of the branches the panicles may be 
symmetrical or one-sided, closed or open. It varies in 
length from eight to twelve inches and bears from fifty to 
eighty spikelets. 

331. The spikelets. — The oat bears its flowers in 
clusters of two or more, each cluster being subtended by 
a common pair of glumes (the outer glumes), and the 
whole attached to the branch by means of a flexible ped- 
icel of variable length. Each cluster including the glumes 
and pedicel comprises a spikelet. It is seldom that more 
than two flowers in each spikelet mature, and as the lower 
one develops into the larger grain, the result is a pair of 
grains of unequal size, often spoken of as "twin grains." 
Where only one grain develops in each spikelet, the oats 
are known as "single " oats. Inside of the large membra-, 
nous outer glumes are the flowering glumes, one for each 
flower. Within each flowering glume, and between it 
and the flower or kernel is a small thin bract called the 
palea. Before fertilization and the development of the 
kernel the organs of reproduction are really inclosed within 
the flowering glume and palea. They consist of three 
anthers borne on as many filaments which are closely 
set about the ovary, and which grow very rapidly, thus 
pushing themselves outside the palea. The ovary bears 
two feathery stigmas which spread out as the flower 
develops. 



I 



OATS 275 

332. Pollination. — The oat is naturally self-pollinated, 
and there is little danger of crossing between different 
varieties, even when grown in close proximity. The 
mixing of varieties is generally the result of carelessness 
in handling the seed. 

333. The grain. — The oat grain, except in hull-less 
varieties, consists of the flowering glume, palea, and ker- 
nel. The flowering glume and palea constitute what is 
known as the oat hull. This, however, is entirely different 
from the hull of wheat or corn. In the case of wheat the 
flowering glume and palea are removed in threshing, 
while in oats they are so tightly wrapped about the kernel 
that threshing does not remove them. The proportion 
of hull to kernel varies considerably in oats and is an im- 
portant factor in determining quality. As a rule the value 
of the grain decreases as the proportion of hull to kernel 
increases. Any unfavorable condition during the time of 
"filling" will usually decrease the percentage of kernel 
owing to the fact that the hull develops first. 

A measured bushel of oats may vary in weight from 
25 to 50 pounds although the usual range is from 30 to 36 
pounds. The legal weight of a bushel in most states is 
32 pounds. As a rule, oats produced in the cotton-belt 
are lighter than that produced further north. Elevator 
companies often resort to the process of "clipping" the 
grain for the purpose of increasing the weight per bushel. 
By this process a portion of the hull is removed from the 
tip of the grain, special machinery being used for this pur- 
pose. 

334. Composition. — Owing to the large proportion 
of hull, the oat grain contains a larger amount of fiber 
and ash than any other cereal. As the proportion of hull 
is quite variable, depending on variety and season, the 



276 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



composition of different samples is very ununiform. The 
average of American analyses is given by Hunt as follows: 

Table 28. Average Composition of Different Parts of the 
Oat Plant ^ 



Oat 
Grain 



Water 11.0 

Ash I 3.0 

Protein j 11.8 

Crude fiber | 9.5 

Nitrogen-free ext . . 1 59 . 7 

Fat 1 5.0 



Oat 


Oat 


Kernel 


Straw 


7.9 


9.2 


2.0 


5.1 


14.7 


4.0 


0.9 


37.0 


67.4 


42.4 


7.1 


2.3 



Oat 
Hay 

(cut in 
milk) 



15.0 

5.2 

9.3 

29.2 

39.0 

2.3 



Oat 
Hull 



7.3 
6.7 
3.3 
29.7 
52.0 
1.0 



The oat kernel is richer in protein than that of any other 
cereal. The straw contains a higher percentage of protein 
and less crude fiber than wheat or rye straw. 

The draft on the important fertilizing constituents made 
by the oat crop is shown below: 

Table 29. Pounds of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash 
Removed from the Soil by a 40-Bushel Crop of Oats ^ 



Nitrogen 



Phosphoric 
Acid 



Potash 



Oat grains, 40 bu. (1280 lbs.) 

Oat straw (1500 lbs.) 

Total crop 



22.53 

8.40 

30.93 



8.83 

4.20 

13.03 



6.14 
24.30 
30.44 



1 Hunt, T. F., " Cereals in America," p. 284. 
^ Duggar's " Southern Field Crops," p. 5, as calculated from data 
in Hopkins' " Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture." 



' OATR 277 

Nearly (hrcc-fourtlis of the total nitrogen and two- 
thirds of thc> phosplioric acid are [)re-ent in the grain, 
whereas the straw contains approximately three-fourths 
of the potash. 

VARIETIES OF OATS 

In the United States, satisfactory results have been 
obtained from considerably more than a hundred varieties 
of oats. Not more than six or eight of these are adapted 
to the cotton-belt. 

335. Classification. — Oat varieties may 'be divided 
into several classes, depending on the basis of classifica- 
tion. As regards time of seeding there are spring and 
winter varieties, the winter oats being seeded in the fall. 
From the standpoint of the shape of the panicle there 
are two main classes. These are "spreading oats" in 
which the branches of the panicle extend in all directions 
from the rachis, and "side oats" in which the branches 
all hang to one side of the rachis. Varieties may be further 
subdivided as regards color of grain into white, yellow, red, 
gray and black oats, or as regards the shape of grain into 
varieties with short, plump grains and those having long 
slender grains. There is also a class of oat varieties called 
hull-less oats in which the flowering glume and palea are 
removed in threshing. 

In the cotton-belt the varieties used are mostly winter 
oats with spreading panicles, a,nd of red or gray color. 
The white and black varieties of both spreading or side 
oats are usually found in northern regions. 

336. Varieties grown in the cotton-belt. — The varie- 
ties of oats grown in the cotton-belt belong to one of the 
following types: (1) Red Rust-proof, to which belong the 
strains Appier, Red Rust-pi-oof, Bancroft, Culberson, 



L 



278 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Thaggard and Hundred Bushel; (2) Burt or May oats; 
(3) Turf or Grazing oats, of which the Virginia Gray is 
the representative variety; (4) Beardless Red oats, of 
which the Fulghum variety is an example. 

The type of oats most generally grown in the South 
is the Red Rust-proof. Next in importance is the Turf 
or Grazing oats. 

The relative productiveness of the four types of oats 
grown in the cotton-belt, as shown by tests at the Alabama 
station ^ is shown below : 

Average percentage indicating 
Red Rust-proof group or type: relative yields of grain. 

Appier (tested 9 years) 110 

Red Rust-proof (tested 10 years) 100 

Bancroft (tested 4 years) , 99 

Hundred Bushel (tested 3 years) 98 

Culberson (tested 3 years) 95 

Fulghum (tested 9 years) 73 

Burt (tested 7 years) 70 

Turf, Va. Gray or winter type 

oat (tested 4 years) 48 

337. Red Rust-proof oats. — The typical variety 
of this group takes the name of the type to which it be- 
longs, namely, Red Rust-proof. It is also called Texas 
Red Rust-proof, Texas Red, Red, and Red Texas. The 
Red Rust-proof variety and its various strains are char- 
acterized as follows: (1) Greater resistance to rust than 
other southern types. (2) Greater length of the slender 
bristles at the base of the larger grain. In other types 
commonly grown in the south these bristles are either 
absent or very short. (3) Both grains in each spikelet 
usually bearded, the beards being long and borne midway 
between the base and tip of grain, especially on the larger 

1 Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 173, p. 132. 



OATS 279 

grains. (4) Straw of medium height, straight and stiff, 
rendering it less Uable to lodge than other types. (5) 
Grains large, plump and of reddish brown color. (6) 
Early in maturing. Usually Red Rust-proof oats will 
mature two weeks earlier than Turf oats sown at the same 
time in the fall. If sowing is delayed until after Christmas, 
Burt oats sown at the same time will usually mature a 
few days earlier than the Red oats. 

Throughout the entire cotton-belt the Red Rust-proof 
oats, as a rule produce larger yields when sown in the early 
fall than when sown after Christmas. As regards hardi- 
ness toward cold tliis type is exceeded only by the winter 
Turf oat. 

The Appier is a very popular strain of the Red Rust- 
proof oats. It was selected by J. E. Appier of Georgia, 
and is probably more extensively grown in the cotton- 
belt than any other selected strain of this type. 

The Culberson oat, while being an excellent yielder 
of grain, is especially valuable for hay or soiling as it 
produces a large amount of straw. 

338. Burt oats. — This variety, sometimes called the 
Ninety-Day or May, is rather extensively grown in some 
sections of the cotton-belt. The grains are rather slender 
and of a pale cream or brownish color. Usually one bearded 
and one beardless grain are borne per spikelet and the 
bristles are either very short or absent. The Burt oat is 
easily winter-killed and for this reason is usually sown after 
Christmas. The fact that it is early maturing together 
with its tendency to grow tall makes it popular in some 
sections, particularly when late sowing must be practiced. 
Objectionable features of this variety are (1) the ease 
with which it winter-kills ; (2) low productiveness of grain 
as compared with Red Rust-proof oats; (3) light weight 



280 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

of grain, and (4) tendency of grain to shatter when har- 
vested. 

339. Turf oats. — Only one variety of the Winter 
Turf type is commonly grown. It i? commonly known 
as Virginia Gray, Turf oats, Grazing oats, or Virginia 




Fig. 46. — Plats of winter oat.s in November at the Maryland Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station, College Park. Note the broad and erect 
habit of the Red Rust-proof variety (on the right) in contrast with 
the narrow leaves and spreading habit of the Winter Turf (on the left). 

Winter oats. This is usually a beardless variety with 
slender grayish colored grains and weak slender straw 
that is easily susceptible to rust. Being the hardiest of 
southern oat varieties the Turf oat is well adapted to fall 
sowing. The spreading character of the plants makes this 
variety better adapted to winter grazing and hay produc- 
tion than for grain production. It is a popular variety 



OATS 281 

for sowing with hairy vofcli for hay;, particularly on ricii 
soils. Turf oats ripen from ten days to two weeks later 
than Red Rust-proof oats when sown at the same date 
in the fall. Experience has shown that in the greater part 
of the cotton-belt, Turf oats are worthy of consideration 
only as a grazing or hay crop. In the extreme northern 
part of the winter-oat belt where Red Rust-proof oats 
frequently winter-kill. Turf oats are quite generally grown 
on the richer soils for grain. 

340. Beardless Red oats. — This type, of which the 
Fulghum is a representative variety, is practicall}^ free 
from beards and is as early as the Burt oats. It is closely 
related to the Red Rust-proof oats, although the kernels 
are shorter and less plump. It is not extensively grown. 

IMPROVEMENT OF VARIETIES 

341. Need of improvement. — Little attention has 
been given to the selection and improvement of oats in 
comparison with corn and cotton. The low average yield 
of oats in the cotton-belt is conclusive evidence that im- 
proved varieties and better methods of growing and han- 
dling the crop are much needed. The improvements most 
needed in southern varieties are: (1) increased pi-oductive- 
ness; (2) increased ratio of kernel to hull; (3) increased 
weight per bushel. Improvements of secondary value 
which will also contribute to higher yields are greater 
strength of straw in some varieties, greater resistance to 
disease, and increased earliness. 

The methods resorted to for improving the oat crop are : 
the introduction of new seed; mechanical selection; the 
maintenance of a seed-plot; the isolation of elementary 
species, and hj^^ridization. 

342. Introduction of new seed. — As a result of the 



282 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

little attention that has been given to the production of 
new or improved varieties of oats in the United States, 
many of our best varieties have been introduced from 
foreign countries. Relief from this source, however, is 
quite limited. Future progress must be based largely on 
the selection and improvement of the varieties that we 
now have. The practice of exchanging seed from one 
locality to another within the United States or even within 
the cotton-belt is quite common. Experience and ex- 
periments have shown that little permanent improvement 
can be secured by thiv« practice. On the other hand, it 
usually results in decreased yields. In an experiment 
conducted at Amarillo, Texas, by the office of Grain In- 
vestigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, 
D, C.,'"home grown seed of Burt oats yielded practically 
twice as much as an adjoining plot of the same variety 
from seed which had been grown in central Kansas for two 
years, though both lots were grown from the same original 
stock." 

343. Mechanical selection. — Running seed oats 
through a good fanning mill so adjusted as to remove the 
light-shriveled grains as well as weed seeds and dirt is a 
very commendable practice. While Httle permanent im- 
provement can be secured by such treatment, tests have 
repeatedly shown increased yields due to the removal 
of the poorly developed seeds that either will not germinate 
or that produce very weak, unproductive plants. 

344. The seed-plot. — The maintenance of a seed- 
plot is based on the princii^le of slow and gradual amel- 
ioration of the crop by propagating each year from mixed 
seed secured from a number of select plants that conform 
to the same type. The fir?t year, seed is selected from a 
sufficient number of plants, which show superior qualities 



OATS 283 

under ordinary conditions, to plant the seed-plot. This 
plot should be large enough to furnish s^eed for the general 
crop. At the end of the second year the best plants are 
selected from the seed-plot to plant the seed-plot of the 
next year. The remainder of the crop from the seed-plot 
is used to plant the general crop. Thie method can be 
depended on to maintain the excellence of a variety and 
probably to effect its slow amelioration. Rapid improve- 
ment involves a method which gives more attention to the 
progeny of individual plants. 

345. The isolation of elementary species. — This 
method is based upon the principle that our so-called 
varieties of small-grain are neither pure nor uniform but 
are made up of numerous elementary units or types which 
are extremely variable as regards their excellence. As 
oats are natm^ally self-pollinated each elementary type 
tends to breed true from year to year. Rapid improve- 
ment is therefore based upon the isolation of the superior 
type from the mixture and its subsequent multiplication 
in a pure form. The breeder goes into the field and after 
a careful study of the individual plants or types, selects 
a number of the best individuals. The seed from each 
individual is kept separate, and the next year is planted 
either in a row or "centgener" plot to itself. The supe- 
riority of the individuals selected is determined by a care- 
ful study of the uniformity and productiveness of their 
progeny. The seed of each superior type that breeds 
uniformly true is kept to itself and multiplied. Tliis forms 
the basis of an improved strain. The most rapid and per- 
manent improvement of oats in the past has been accom- 
plished l)y this method of individual plant selection. 

346. Improvement by hybridization. — The improve- 
ment of oats by hybridization is rather difficult, not alone 



284 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

because of the smallness of the reproductive organs but 
because it also involves complicated problems of selection 
in order to isolate and fix the valuable types from the mul- 
tiplicity of forms that occur in the subsequent hybrid 
generations. For this reason this method should be con- 
fined to the professional breeder. Excellent results have 
recently been secured at several stations from a selection 
from the hybrid, Burt X Sixty-Day.^ 

1 U. S. Dep't of Agr., Bui. 99. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

OATS — CLIMATE, SOILS, TILLAGE PRACTICES, 

AND USES 

Conditions arc less favorable for the successful produc- 
tion of oats in the cotton-belt than in more northern sec- 
tions. This fact renders it of paramount importance that 
the southern oat-grower give special attention to the proper 
selection of soils and fertilizers for oats, as well as to the 
besf time and manner of seeding. 

347. Climate. — For best results with oats the climate 
needs to be both cool and moist. They grow to perfection 
under climatic conditions too cool for best results 'with 
wheat, barley, or corn. Throughout the greater part of 
the cotton-belt moisture conditions are quite favorable 
to oat production, the relatively low average yield of this 
region being partially the result of the high mean tem- 
perature during the oat-growing season. This high mean 
temperature is the chief factor limiting the number of 
varieties of oats that can be produced with success in the 
cotton-belt. It is also thought that this same factor is 
primarily responsible for the relatively poor quality of 
southern oats in comparison with the quality of oats pro- 
duced in the North. On good soils southern varieties will 
grow large but they are less compact and the grains are 
less plump and somewhat lighter than northern oats. 

348. Soils. — Oats are more often sown on poor soil 
than any other cereal. The principal reasons for this arc: 
(1) the oat is a strong feeder and a fair crop can be pro- 

285 



286 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

duced on soils too poor for other crops; (2) on very fertile 
soils oats lodge more than do the other small grains. While 
oats are not best suited to extremely fertile soils they, like 
other crops, will not return the grower a profit on exhausted 
soils. It should be remembered also that the varieties of 
oats most commonly grown in the South have short, stiff 
straw and are not so likely to lodge as northern varieties. 
Usually any soil that will produce satisfactory yields of 
corn or cotton will prove quite satisfactory for oats. Suffi- 
cient fertility to produce a quick growth and early maturity 
is essential. It is important that the soil have a high water- 
holding capacity as the water requirements of oats are 
large. King has shown that the water requirement for the 
production of a pound of dry matter in oats is 504 pounds 
as compared with 277 pounds for corn. On soils containing 
a high percentage of clay oats are more subject to "spewing 
out" or winter-killing than on sandy soils. 

349. Fertilizers and manures. — The direct applica- 
tion of fertilizers and manures to oats is very uncommon. 
The belief that fertilizers and manures will cause the oats 
to lodge or that these materials will pay better when ap- 
plied to some other crop is almost universal. Unquestion- 
ably the oat is not adapted to heavy fertilization. But 
experiments have shown that this crop will respond very 
profitably to medium or light applications of fertilizers 
especially when growing on poor soils. If oats follow corn 
or some other crop that has been well fertilized, the res- 
idues of these fertilizing materials will usually suffice for 
the oats. If a good crop of legumes, such as cowpeas, pre- 
cede the oats, all nitrogenous materials in the oat fertilizer 
should be eliminated. However, on the average soils of 
the cotton-belt the most universal need of the oat crop is 
for nitrogen. As this crop makes its growth during the 



OATS — CLIMATE, SOILS, TILLAGE, USES 287 

cooler months of the year, at which time the nitrifying 
processes in the soil are relatively inactive, the nitrogen 
should be applied in a quickly soluble form and preferably 
as a top-dressing about two months before harvest. As a 
source of nitrogen for oats the relative value of nitrate 
of soda applied as a top-dressing in the spring, and cotton- 
seed meal, cotton seed, nitrate of soda and manure "incor- 
porated with the soil on the date of sowing the seed" has 
been investigated by the Alabama Station. Approximately 
equal amounts of nitrogen were added to all plots "in the 
presence of uniform amounts of acid phosphate:" 

Table 30. Alabama Station Results with Different Soukces 
OF Nitrogen for Oats "^ 





Amount 

PER 

Acre. 
Pounds 


Time of 
Applica- 
tion 


Increase to the Acre Due to 
Nitrogen — Bushels 


Average 

In- 
crease 




1901 


1906 


1908 


1909 


Acre, 
Bushels 


No Nitrogen . 
Cotton-seed 

meal 

Cotton seed . 
Nitrate of 

soda 

Nitrate of 

soda 

Manure 


200 
434 

100 

100 
4000 


Fall 
Fall 

Spring 

Fall 
Fall 


8.0 
7.3 

19.4 

,19.1 
17.5 


13.0 
2.2 

2.-1.9 

24.5 
21.6 


G.2 
4.0 

8.8 

8.3 
'2.2 


0.3 
2.3 

19.8 

7.8 
3.2 


6.7 
3.9 

18.4 

14.9 
U.l 



On poor soils from 100 to 200 pounds of acid phosphate 
to the acre should be applied in addition to the nitrogenous 
fertilizer. Potash is usually not needed for oats except 
on very sandy, poor soils. On such soils muriate of potash 
at the rate from 40 to 60 pounds an acre should be included 
in the fertilizer mixture. All commercial fertilizers, with 
the exception of nitrate of soda, are best applied with a 

1 Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 173, p. 135. 



288 FIELD CROPS FOR' THE COTTON-BELT 

fertilizer attachment to the grain drill at the time of sowing 
the seed. Precautions should be used, however, to prevent 
large amounts of cotton-seed meal or potash salts from 
coming in direct contact with the seed. Otherwise ger- 
mination might be injured. 

Heavy applications of manure directly to the oat crop 
are not advisable. An excellent practice is to apply the 
manure as a light top-dressing to the oats in late fall or 
early winter. 

350. Place in the rotation. — Wherever possible, oats 
should follow a cultivated crop in the rotation. In the 
southern systems of rotation oats usually follow corn 
rather than cotton as the corn is removed from the land 
rather early in the fall. An excellent practice is to sow 
cowpeas in the corn to be used as a seed- crop and the 
vines plowed under. At the Alabama Station a yield 
of 13.7 bushels of oats to the acre was secured on land 
following corn, 19.9 bushels where a crop of cowpeas had 
been plowed under, and 30 bushels to the acre following 
peanuts from which the nuts had been picked. Where 
moisture conditions will permit, the soil should be plowed 
or disked as soon as the oats are harvested and cowpeas 
sown for hay, pasture or greon-manure. In most sections 
of the cotton-belt the cowpeas thus sown can be utihzed as 
outlined above in sufficient time for the land to be seeded 
to oats again in the fall. Following this system and plow- 
ing under the cowpea vines, the Arkansas Station found 
that the increased yield of oats was greater than where 
400 pounds of complete commercial fertilizer to the acre 
were applied. ' On most soils, this one-year rotation would 
require the application of mineral fertilizers, preferably 
to the cowpea crop. 

1 Ark. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. GO. 



OATS — CLIMATE, SOILS, TILLAGE, USES 289 



TILLAGE PRACTICES 

Tillage practices are, as a rule, poorer for oats than for 
other field crops, regardless of the fact that oats respond 
profitably to good treatment. 

351. Preparation of the seed-bed. — Oats do better 
on a seed-bed of medium compactness than on a very 
loose or very compact one. Deep plowing is not as es- 
sential as for corn, cotton, or wheat. Much land is sown 
to oats in the cotton-belt without plowing. In some 
caees the oats are sown broadcast and covered with some 
type of turn-plow. Often the land is disked before the 
seed i? sown and once or twice after sowing. Covering 
the seed on unplowed land with a turn-plow is very ob- 
jectionable, as much of the seed is covered too deep and 
the seed-bed is often left in a loose, cloddy condition. 
Where the soil is naturally compact, as is generally the 
case in the cotton-belt, plowing the land before planting 
is advisable. An excellent practice is to plow and thor- 
oughly pulverize the seed-bed, and sow the seed with a 
grain drill. Where no grain drill is available, the seed 
may be sown broadcast after plowing and covered with 
a disk-harrow. Plowing and harrowing the seed-bed and 
afterwards planting- by the deep-furrow method described 
later has been found to give excellent results. 

352. Time of seeding. — ■ All varieties of southern 
oats, with the exception of Burt or May oats, are best 
sown in the early fall throughout the greater part of the 
cotton-belt. The mistake of deferring planting until 
quite late in the fall is too common in the South. As 
winter oats are not so hardy as winter wheat or barley, 
they require a longer period between sowing and the 
coming of cold weather so that the plants may become 



290 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

well rooted. Considerable top growth before cold weather 
is also desirable, although sufficiently early planting to 
permit the production of stems before winter will result 
in winter- kilHng. Early sown oats are not subject to the 
ravages of the Hessian Fly as is early sown wheat. In 
the northern section of the cotton-belt, winter oats should 
be sown from the 15th to 30th of September. In the cen- 
tral section, including central Texas, most of Mississippi, 
Alabama, Georgia, and northern Louisiana, the best time 
of seeding is during the month of October provided 
the soil is not too dry. Along the Gulf Coast oats are 
usually seeded in late October or the first half of Novem- 
ber. In the cotton-belt fall-sown oats almost invariably 
yield more than oats sown after Christmas for the following 
reasons: (1) the plants have a longer time in which to 
draw food from the soil and make a more vigorous growth; 
(2) fall-seeding interferes less with other work, and con- 
sequently a better prepared seed-bed is furnished; (3) 
fall-sown oats mature earlier than when sown in the spring. 
For this reason they are less affected by rust, and less 
liable to injury by storms; (4) for their best results oats 
require more cool weather than is permitted by spring 
sowing. 

A seven-year test at the Alabama Station gave an aver- 
age yield of 26.8 bushels of oats to the acre when they 
were sown in November as compared with an average 
yield of 15.5 bushels when they .were sown in February. 

353. Methods of seeding. — There are three methods 
of seeding oats in the cotton-belt. These are: (1) broad- 
cast seeding either on plowed or unplowed land; (2) drill- 
ing with the ordinary grain drill; and (3) drilling with the 
"open-furrow" drill, or a one-horse planter. 

Many experiments in the cotton-belt have proved that 



OATS — CLIMATE, SOILS, TILLAGE, USES 291 

even on a well -prepared seed-bed, drilled oats yield better 
as a rule than when sown broadcast and harrowed or 
plowed in. The reasons for this arc: (1) the drilled seed 
are covered at a uniform depth and a more perfect germi- 
nation is secured; (2) the drilled seed being placed in the 
bottom of shallow furrows are less subject to winter-kill- 
ing; and (3) drilled seed will better withstand dry weather 
than seed sown broadcast. Drilling as compared with 
broadcast sowing requires less seed to the acre and often 
induces better preparation of the seed-bed. In using the 
grain drill one should be careful to see that none of the 
drills become clogged, or that the oats do not stick to- 
gether, resulting in an uneven distribution. This is 
especially important in sowing seed of the Red Rust-proof 
type. 

354. The open-furrow method of seeding. — The 
method of seeding oats in the bottom of rather deep fur- 
rows, 16 to 24 inches apart, by means of an ordinary 
single-row planter or a seed-drill especially devised for 
the purpose was first suggested and tested by the Georgia 
Station. When a one-horse planter is used the furrows 
are first opened with a large shovel plow. The recent 
invention of an "open-furrow" drill which sows several 
rows at a time will doubtless eliminate the chief objection 
to the open-furrow method- of seeding oats, namely, its 
slowness. Where fertilizers are needed a drill with a fer- 
tilizer attachment may be used, thus distributing the 
fertilizer in the furrows with the seed. 

The main advantage of the open-furrow method of 
seeding oats is that it permits the roots and crowns of 
the plants to develop two or three inches below the sur- 
face. While the furrows are partially filled by rains and 
the alternate freezing and thawing of the soil, the plants 



292 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



are still far enough below the surface to give ample pro- 
tection from cold. In the early spring the oats may be 
given a thorough harrowing, which tends to level the land 
before harvesting and serves as a cultivation for the crop. 
Excellent results from this method have been reported 
by both the Georgia and Alabama Stations. The results 
of a test at the Alabama Station, in which the open-furrow 
method of seeding was compared with broadcast sown, 
and drilling, are given below: 

Table 31. Average Yields in Bushels of Oats Sown Broad- 
cast, in Deep Furrows and Drilled with an Eight-inch 
Drill ^ 





Broad- 
cast 


Eight- 
Inch 
Drill 


Drilled 
IN Open 

F'UR- 

rows 


Deep 

P^URROW 

Filled 


Average for six years 

Average for five years 

Average for four years 


32.7 

29.0 1 .... 

33.6 ] 34.7 


34.6 


31.1 


Average increase over broad- 
cast sowing 




1.1 


1.9 


2.2 







The above averages are based only on the yields 
during those years in which both methods have been 
emplo.yed. 

355. Rate of seeding. — The quantity of seed to sow 
varies somewhat with the method of sowing, the type of oats 
sown and the locality. The quantity of seed to the acre 
usually recommended for all varieties of the Red Rust-proof 
type is two to two and one-half bushels when broadcast 
and one and one-half to two bushels when drilled with 
' Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui., 173, p. 127. 



OATS^CIJMATK, SOILS, TlLLMlE, USES 293 

either the ordinary grain (h'ill or the o[)en-t"urrow drill. The 
rate of seeding for the Winter Turf oats is often somewhat 
less than for the Red Rust-proof type, owing to the hardi- 
ness of the former and its tendency to stool readily. Late 
seeding of any variety requires more seed to the acre than 
early seeding. In the extreme northern part of the cotton- 
belt where the winters are rather severe, a heavier rate 
of seeding is advisable than for more southern sections. 
Owing to the tendency of oats to stool and thus occupy 
all of the available space, the rate of seeding is subject 
to considerable variation without materially affecting 
the yield. 

356. Subsequent care. — It is quite common to give 
the oats no further treatment from seeding until harvest. 
Special conditions often render advisable certain practices 
in caring for the crop, the most important of which are 
here given. 

(1) Rolling the land as soon as possible after heaving 
takes place to settle the lifted plants into closer contact 
with the soil. Heaving is worse on clay soils and injury 
will result if such soils are rolled when wet. 

(2) Harrowing in the early spring to keep weeds in check 
and to prevent the excessive loss of moisture by breaking 
the surface crust. It is important that land seeded by the 
open-furrow method be harrowed in the spring to partially 
fill the furrows and level down the ridges between the fur- 
rows. 

(3) Top-dressing the oats in the fall with l^arnyard 
manure or in the spring with 75 to 100 pounds of nitrate 
of soda to the acre. 

(4) Oats sown very early in the fall are sometimes pas- 
tured during the winter to prevent the formation of stems 
befoi'c all danger of freezing weather is past. Oats should 



294 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

not be pastured when the land is wet, nor late enough to 
prevent abundant stooling or the production of stems in 
the spring. 

USES OF OATS 

357. Grain as food. — The grain of oats is used pri- 
marily as a feed for horses, first because of its high value 
as a horse food, and, second, because the market price 
of oats in the cotton-belt is so high as to prohibit its being 
fed with profit to other classes of live-stock. Even when 
oats are fed to 'horses, the practice of substituting corn 
or some cheaper food for a part of the oat ration is rather 
common. Oats do not make a good ration for fattening 
cattle and its high content of crude fiber renders it inferior 
as a food for hogs. When the price will justify its use the 
grain of oats makes a good feed for dairy cows, sheep 
and poultry. 

358. Oat straw. — For stock not at hard work, oat 
straw makes a valuable roughage. Its feeding value is 
greater than the straw of wheat, rye, or barley and almost 
equals that of corn stover. Oat straw is an excellent 
absorbent and being richer in fertilizing elements than the 
straw of the other small-grains, it makes an excellent 
litter for use in stables. 

359. Oat hay. — If cut in the early dough stage oats 
make an excellent hay. On good land, from two to three 
tons to the acre can be produced. It is cured without 
difficulty and is eaten greedily by horses, cattle, and sheep. 
In the South, winter vetch is often grown with the oats 
for hay. 

360. Oats for pasture and soiling. — Excellent winter 
pasture for all kinds of stock may be furnished by oat?. 
They should not be pastured early in the fall nor too closely 



OATS — CLIMATE, SOILS, TILLAGE, USES 295 

if a crop of grain is desired. Sowing vetch with the oats 
increases the value of the pasture. 

As a soiUng-crop, oats will furnish a large amount of 
green feed, although they come into use a little later than 
rye. Cutting begins as soon as the heads begin to show 
and continues until the crop is almost mature. 



CHAPTER XXV 

OATS — HARVESTING, MARKETING, INSECT 
ENEMIES AND DISEASES 

In the cotton-belt, oats are usually cut with a grain 
binder. In special cases, as when the straw is badly lodged 
or is very shoi-t owing to poor soil or dry weather, or when 
the crop is cut for hay rather than grain, the mower may 
be used. Small, irregularly shaped areas are best har- 
vested with a mower or with a cradle. In the grain- 
producing states of the semi-arid West oats are often 
harvested with a header or sometimes with a combined 
harvester and thrasher. 

361. Time of cutting. — To produce the best quality 
of grain, oats should be cut when the grain has passed 
from the "milk" into the hard "dough" stage. As most 
varieties of southern oats do not shatter badly, cutting is 
often deferred until the grain has just past the hard dough 
stage, at which time the heads have turned yellow. If 
oats are cut before the hard dough stage, the grain will 
subsequently shrivel and be of light weight. Even when 
cut for hay, the grain should be permitted to develop as 
much as possible without allowing the straw to become 
tough and hard. 

362. Shocking. — If the oats are fairly mature when 
hai'vested and do not contain a large amount of green 
weeds, the bundles should be placed in round shocks 
of ten or twelve bundles each. Each shock should be 
covered with two bundles as "caps," or with covers made 

296 



OATS — HARVESTING, MARKETING, ENEMIES 297 

out of canvas. Carefully built sliocks which expose as 
little grain to the weather as possible produce the best 
quality of grain. Oats that are green when cut or that 
contain large quantities of weeds should be placed in long 
shocks, which may or may not be capped. In sections 
subject to frequent rains at harvest time capping is advisa- 
ble. Oats should never be shocked while wet from dew or 
rain. 

Oats that have been cut with the mower should lie in 
the swath or windrow until they are partially cured; then 
they should be placed in carefully built cocks. In sections 
subject to much rain, canvas covers should be provided 
for these cocks. 

363. Stacking. — In the humid part of the cotton-belt 
it is usually necessary to stack oats intended for grain, 
particularly if the thrasher cannot be put into the field 
as soon as the grain is fit to thrash. Stacking should be 
done as soon as the oats have completely cured out in the 
shock. Leaving them for a considerable time in the shock 
where they are unnecessarily exposed to unfavorable 
weather is responsible for nuich bleached, sprouted, or 
bin-damaged grain. The stack should be well built on a 
base made of poles or rails to prevent the grain from com- 
ing in contact with the earth. The bundles should be so 
placed that only the butts are exposed and with slope 
enough to prevent water from running back the stems into 
the stack. The stack should be well capped to shed water. 

In dry sections and where thrashing machines are readily 
available, oats are often thrashed from the shock without 
stacking. Where this can be done without damaging the 
grain it is more economical than stacking. 

364. Thrashing and storing. — For best results, the 
grain must be thoroughly dry when thrashed. Care must 



298 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

be exercised to see that the concaves of the machine are 
so adjusted as to remove all of the grain from the straw 
without hulling the grain. The straw is usually stacked 
or hauled to the barn. 

The grain should be stored in well-constructed bins set 
sufficiently high off the ground that the grain will not 
absorb moisture. The bins should be well cleaned before 
filling as grain weevils or other insects often get into the 
grain from uncleaned bins. 

MARKETING 

The greater part of the oats produced in the cotton- 
belt are fed on the farm. In some cases that portion of 
the crop that is marketed is first run through a fanning 
mill to remove dirt and weed seeds as well as the light, 
chaffy grains, with the idea of raising the grade. Often 
the markets do not pay sufficiently for cleaned seed to 
justify the farmer for his trouble. 

365. Bleached oats. — The large elevator companies 
sometimes resort to the practice of bleaching oats of 
inferior quality with sulfur fumes or other chemicals for 
the purpose of making them resemble a better quality. 
The profit from this practice is derived (1) by securing 
low grades of oats and greatly increasing their selling price 
by changing their appearance and (2) by increasing the 
original weight by means of the water absorbed during 
the bleaching process. Investigations have shown that 
bleaching impairs the vitality of oats but that their feed- 
ing value is not greatly reduced.^ Bleached oats should 
not be used for seed. 

366. Market grades of oats. — On the large markets 
oats are graded when bought. These market grades differ 

1 IJ. S. Dep't of Agr. Bur. of Plant Ind., Cir. 74 



OATS — HARVESTING, MARKETING, ENEMIES 299 

somewhat with different markets. The grades that were 
adopted by the Grain Dealers' National Association in 
1909 are given below: 

White Oats 

"No. 1 white oats shall be white, dry, sweet, sound, bright, clean, 
free from other grain, and weigh not less than 32 pounds to the 
measured bushel. 

"No. 2 white oats shall 1)e 95 per cent white, dry, sweet, shall con- 
tain not more than 1 per cent of dirt and 1 per cent of other grain, 
and weigh not less than 29 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"Standard white oats shall be 92 per cent white, dry, sweet, shall 
not contain more than 2 per cent of dirt and 2 per cent of other grain, 
and weigh not less than 28 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 3 white oats shall be sweet, 90 per cent white, shall not con- 
tain more than 3 ])er cent of dirt and 5 per cent of other grain, and 
weigh not less than 24 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 4 white oats shall be 90 per cent white, may be damp, dam- 
aged, musty or very dirty. 

"Notice. — Yellow oats shall not be graded better than No. 3 
white oats. 

Mixed Oats 

"No. 1 mixed oats shall be oats of various colors, dry, sweet, sound, 
bright, clean, free from other grain, and weigh not less than 32 pounds 
to the measured bushel. 

"No. 2 mixed oats shall be oats of various colors, dry, sweet, shall 
not contain more than 2 per cent of dirt and 2 per cent of other grain, 
and .weigh not less than 28 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 3 mixed oats shall be sweet oats of various colors, shall not 
contain more than 3 per cent of dirt and 5 per cent of other grain, 
and weigh not less than 24 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 4 mixed oats shall be oats of various colors, damp, damaged, 
musty, or very dirty. 

Red or Rust-proof Oats 

"No. 1 red oats, or rust-proof, shall be pure red, sound, bright, 
sweet, clean, and free from other grain, and weigh not less than 32 
pounds to the measured bushel. 



300 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

"No. 2 red oats, or rust-proof, shall be seven-eighths red, sweet, 
dry, and shall not contain more than 2 per cent dirt or foreign matter, 
and weigh 30 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 3 red oats, or rust-proof, shall be sweet, seven-eighths red, 
shall not contain more than 5 per cent dirt or foreign matter, and 
weigh not less than 24 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 4 red oats, or rust-proof, shall be seven-eighths red, may be 
damp, musty, or very dirty. 

White Clipped Oats 

"No. 1 white clipped oats shall be white, clean, dry, sweet, sound, 
bright, free from other grain, and weigh not less than 35 pounds to 
the measured bushel. 

"No. 2 white clipped oats shall be 95 per cent white, dry, sweet, 
shall not contain more than 2 per cent of dirt or foreign matter, and 
weigh not less than 32 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 3 white clipped oats shall be sweet, 90 per cent white, shall 
not contain more than 5 per cent of dirt or foreign matter., and weigh 
not less than 30 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 4 white clipped oats shall be 90 per cent white, damp, dam- 
aged, musty, or dirty, and weigh not less than 30 pounds to the 
measured bushel. 

Mixed Clipped Oats 

"No. 1 mixed clipped oats shall be oats of various colors, dry, 
sweet, sound, bright, clean, free from other grain, and weigh not less 
than 35 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 2 mixed clipped oats shall be oats of various colors, dry, 
sweet, shall not contain more than 2 per cent of dirt or foreign matter, 
and weigh not less than 32 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 3 mixed clipped oats shall be sweet oats of various colors, 
shall not contain more than 5 per cent of dirt or foreign matter, and 
weigh not less than 30 pounds to the measured bushel. 

"No. 4 mixed clipped oats shall be oats of various colors, damp, 
damaged, musty, or dirty, and weigh not less than 30 pounds to the 
measured bushel. 

"Note. — ■ Inspectors are authorized when requested by shippers 
to give weight per bushel instead of grade on clipped white oats and 
clipped mixed oats from private elevators. 



OATS — HARVESTING, MARKETING, ENEMIES 301 

Purified Oats 

".\11 oats that have been chemically treated or purified shall be 
classed as purified oats, and inspectors shall give the test weight on 
each car or parcel that may be so inspected." 

INSECT ENEMIES 

367. The oat plant is generally exceptionally free from 
insect injury. In occasional seasons, chinch-bugs, grass- 
hoppers, or green-bugs {Toxoptoxi graminum) do consider- 
able damage. Methods of exterminating chinch-bugs are 
outlined in the chapter on insect enemies of corn. 

Green-bugs are small green colored lice that suck the 
juices from the young plants. They are most serious in 
the western and southwestern sections of the country. 
Green-bugs are usually kept in check by their natural 
enemies among which is a species of lady bug. 

FUNGOUS DISEASES 

The two diseases of paramount importance affecting 
oats are rust and smut. 

368. Oat rust. — There are two distinct kinds of oat 
rust. One of these (Puccinia coronata) occurs chiefly on 
the leaves and is known as the "crown" rust owing to the 
fact that the spores at their upper parts have the form of 
a crown. The other kind of rust (P. graminis avence) 
occurs on the stems and is known as "black-stem" rust. 
Each of these rusts has two stages, the red-rust stage, 
appearing first, followed by the black-rust stage. For 
this reason they are often confused by farmers. Both 
"crown" and "black-stem" rust have been found to be 
coextensive with the oat crop, usually occurring together 
and being much more prevalent in humid than in arid 
sections. The black-stem rust is of extreme importance in 



302 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON- BELT 

the cotton-belt. The "crown " rust is not a serious disease. 
It usually appears a little earlier than the stem-rust and 
little injury is noticed until the latter appears. 

There is no known treatment for rust. Some varieties 
are more resistant to attacks of rust than others and the 
only relief lies in the growing of these resistant sorts, chief 
of which is the Red Rust-proof type. These so-called 
rust-proof oats are not entirely rust-proof as there is ne&,rly 
always a considerable amount of rust on the plants. In 
almost any variety there are some plants more resistant 
to rust than others. As this rust resistance is heritable 
to a greater or less degree, the possibility of breeding up 
rust-resistant strains is great. To what character of the 
plant rust-resistance is due has not been definitely estab- 
lished, but most authorities agree that the cause is physi- 
ological rather than morphological. 

369. Oat smut. — This disease occurs in two closely 
related forms both of which are noticeable exclusively 
in connection with the flowering or seed -producing parts 
of the plant. The most common and destructive form 
( Ustilago avence) is known as loose smut in that it reduces 
the entire flower-cluster or inflorescence into a black, dusty 
mass of spores (Fig. 47). In the other form (Ustilago 
loBvis) known as closed smut, the disease destroys only 
the kernels, changing them into black masses of spores, the 
glumes not being attacked. This form, therefore, remains 
inclosed or hidden. In each of these forms infection occurs 
only during the young seedling stage. The mycelia subse- 
quently grow throughout the entire tissues of the develop- 
ing plant, finally maturing the spores (or seed) in the 
flowering portion. As these diseases are propagated from 
year to year by the spores that ai-e carried over on the 
seed, they are easily controlled by various seed treatments, 



OATS — HARVESTING, MARKETING, ENEMIES 303 



the most common of which are the formaUn treatment 
and the hot-water treatment. 

The formahii treatment consists in dipping the seed for 
ten minutes in a 
solution containing 
one pint of formahn 
to 30 gallons of 
water. The seed 
may be put in 
loosely woven sacks 
and the entire mass 
immersed in the 
solution. The seed 
is then dried suf- 
ficiently to nin 
through the drills, 
or if immediate sow- 
ing is impossible, 
the seed should be 
spread and thor- 
oughly dried to pre- 
vent germination. 
If the grain is sown 
while in a swollen 
condition, the quan- 
tity to the acre 
should be increased 
accordingly. 

370. The hot- 
water treatment 
consists in immersing the seed for ten minutes in water kept 
at a temperature of from 132° to 133° F. In order that the 
temperature of the hot water may not be greatly reduced 




Fig. 47. — Smut of oats, showing a smutted 
head and for comparison a sound oat head. 



304 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

by using cold seed, the seed should be put into a basket or 
loosely woven sack and previously dipped into water at a 
temperature of 110° to 120° F. The temperature of the 
water is regulated by adding cold or hot water as the case 
may require. A good thermometer is absolutely necessary 
for all hot-water treatments, otherwise the vitality of the 
seed may be destroyed on the one hand, or the treatment 
may be ineffective on the other. 

Copper sulfate solution, often employed for preventing 
smuts of certain cereals, should never be used for oats 
as it injures the seed. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

WHEAT {Triticum sativum) 

Wheat is a cereal grass, widely distributed over the 
civilized world and of vast economic importance. It is 
grown primarily for its grain, the flour of which is made 
into various forms of human food. The by-products of 
wheat arc used as feed for live-stock. 

371. Antiquity of wheat. — The great antiquity of 
wheat is evidenced by the fact that it has been found in the 
prehistoric habitations of man. As far back as the Stone 
Age one or two small-grained sorts of wheat were used by 
the earliest Lake Dwellers of western Switzerland. The 
Chinese grew the crop 3000 years B. C. The most ancient 
languages mention wheat, although under different names. 
It is generally agreed that the cultivation of wheat ante- 
dates the written history of man. 

372. Nativity. — The original habitat of wheat has 
never been determined with certainty. The most gen- 
erally accepted belief is that wheat once grew wild in the 
Euphrates and Tigris valleys. That wheat has been found 
growing wild in western Asia has been claimed by some but 
without conclusive evidence. 

373. Biological origin. — The biological orgin of wheat, 
like its nativity, is somewhat obscure. Many believe that 
our cultivated wheat traces back to the wild annual grasses 
belonging to the genus .-Egilops occurring abundantly in 
southern Europe.^ The Minnesota Station - points out the 

' Dondlingor, P. T., " The Book of Wheat," p. 3. 
~ Minn. Agr. Exp. Station, Bui. (V2, " p. 81." 

305 



306 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

following different stages in the evolution of wheat: (1) 
^gilops ovata, a small annual grass of southern Europe, 
having but one grain in each head; (2) the improved and 
better developed form of this same species; (3) Triticum 
spelta, the cultivated spelt of Europe; (4) Triticum poloni- 
cum, Polish wheat; (5) Triticum sativum, common wheat. 

374. Botanical classification. — Following is shown 
the botanical classification of common wheat: Order — 
Gramineae; tribe — Hordese; genus — Triticum; species — 
sativum; subspecies — vulgare. 

Each member of the tribe (Hordese) to which wheat, rye, 
and barley belong produces its inflorescence in the form of 
a spike, rather than in a panicle as do the members of the 
tribe (A venae) to which oats belong. Other cultivated 
grasses belonging to the same tribe as wheat are perennial 
rye-grass (Lolium perenne), and Italian rye-grass {Lolium 
italicum). Some troublesome weeds belonging to this 
tribe are darnel (Lolium temulentum), and couch-grass 
(Agropyron repens). 

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF WHEAT 

375. Roots. — In germinating, the wheat grain throws 
out a whorl of 3 to 8 temporary roots. The first of these 
to appear is called the radicle. Immediately following 
the appearance of the temporary roots the stalk begins 
to develop. At each underground joint a whorl of per- 
manent roots is thrown out. The distance between the 
temporary roots and the joints at which the permanent 
roots are borne will be governed primarily by the depth 
of planting. The permanent roots usually occur about 
one inch below the surface of the soil, uTespective of 
the depth of planting. No tap-root is produced. The 
roots are quite fibrous and tend to curve outward for a 



WHEAT 



307 



short distance from the plant and then descend almost 
vertically, many of them having been known to grow to a 
depth of fom" or five feet. 

376. Culms. — The culms of wheat vary in height 
from three to five feet. They are usually hollow with solid 
joints, but in a few varieties they are partially or entirely 
filled with pith. During the early growth of 
the culm, the joints are very close together 
but as it elongates the spaces between the 
joints increase rapidly until the plant has 
reached its full height. The length of the 
culms vary with type, variety, soil, fertility, 
and seasonal conditions. The tendency to 
lodge is governed primarily by the length of 
the stems and secondarily by their stiffness 
or strength. There is not necessarily any 
direct relation between the yield of grain 
and the length of culms. The latter char- 
acter, however, influences the ease of har- 
vesting. 

377. Tillering (Fig. 48).— Wheat, like 
other cereals, throws out branches after the 
plumule has appeared above ground. Within 
the axil of each leaf on the culm as well as 
at each underground node a bud is formed. 
Ordinarily only the buds that are covered with soil develop 
into branches, the others remaining dormant. As each 
branch may produce a limited number of branches, and as 
these branches may in turn, produce still other branches, 
each grain may under favorable conditions, produce a rela- 
tively large number of culms. In exceptional cases one 
grain of wheat has been known to produce as many as fifty 
spikes. By this characteristic of tillering, wheat and other 




1^7.3 



EiG. 48. 
Diagrammat- 
ic section 
through the 
stem of wheat 
about 25 days 
after planting 
(enlarged). 
The first bud 
designed to 
form a tiller 
is just start- 
ing. 



308 



FIELD CHOPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



small grains possess considerable power of adapting them- 
selves to their environment. As a rule, the more favorable 
the conditions are for growth and the thinner the seeding is, 
the greater is the tendency to tiller. However, very thin 
seeding with the idea of inducing 
tillering is not advisable, as it will 
usually result in decreased yield. 

378. Leaves. — The wheat leaf 
(Fig. 49) consists of four principal 
parts: (1) the blade, or that part of 
the leaf which hangs free from the 
stem; (2) the sheath, constituting 
that part which envelops the stem 
tightly; (3) the ligule, a thin mem- 
brane growing at the juncture of the 
blade and sheath and also clasping 
the culm; (4) the leaf-auricle, being 
a thin outgrowth from the base of 
the blade. In the case of wheat. 
Fig. 49. — A wheat leaf, small hairs are produced on the edges 

showing 1, blade; 2, . , 

sheath; 3, ligule; and 01 the leai-auricles whereas the auri- 
4, auricle. ^^^^ ^^ barley and rye are hairless. 

Oats usually produce no auricles. The leaf-blade of wheat 
is usually narrower than that of either barley or oats. 

379. The spike (Fig. 50). — The inflorescence of wheat 
is arranged in a long, narrow, compact cluster at the sum- 
mit of the stem and is called the "spike " or "head." That 
part of the stem running through the spike, to which the 
flower-stems are attached, is called the "rachis." The 
short joints of the rachis are put together in such a way as 
to give it a zigzag appearance. The spikelets are produced 
at these joints on alternate sides of the rachis. The length 
of the wheat spike varies from 23^^ to 43/2 inches, the av- 




WHEAT 



309 




erage length being about 3J^ inches. The spike is also 
variable as regards its form and compactness. It may be 
tapering from the center toward both tip and base or from 
the center toward the apex only. Again the spike may be 
of uniform thickness throughout or, as in the 
case of the club varieties, decidedly clubbed at 
the apex. The number of spikelets to a spike 
is governed by variety, soil, cHmate, or culture, 
the usual variation being from 10 to 20, con- 
taining a total of 20 to 50 grains. 

380. The spikelets. — The spikelets may 
be termed secondary spikes. Each spikelet is 
joined to the rachis by a small branch which 
extends through the center of the spikelet and 
is known as the "rachilla." ''Inserted on the 
rachilla are several concave scales which are 
called the glumes. The two lowest and outer- 
most of these contain no flowers or kernels 
and are designated as the 'fiowerless glumes.' 
Above these, arranged alternately, are borne 
the flowers, rarely less than two, or more than 
five. Each flower and, as it matures, each 
grain, is subtended by a single glume, known 
as the 'flowering glume.' Each flowering glume 
has a longitudinal nerve which at the summit extends 
(in the case of bearded varieties) into a prominent 
'awn' or 'beard.' On the inner or creased side of the 
grain or berry, filling it very closely, and more or less 
hidden from view by the flowering glume, is borne the 
'palea' or palet, a thin scale with two nerves. The flower- 
less and flowering glumes and the palet'! are spoken of 
collectively as the 'chaff.'" The wheat flower consists of 
the flowering glume, the palea and the reproductive organs. 



310 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



381. Fertilization. — The wheat flower possesses two 
erect plume-like stigmas which surmount the ovulary. 
There are three stamens each bearing an anther. As the 
flower develops, the filaments bearing the anthers elongate 
rapidly, pushing the anthers upward so that they suddenly 
overturn allowing the poUen to faU upon the stigmas. 
These expansions and processes take place within the 
closed flower, and thus the wheat is self-fertilized. After 



4-45 AM 




443 AM 





4-55 AM 




5O8 AM. 



5 15 AM 




3I8 AM 





10 



Fig. 51. — Illustrating the opening and closing of the wheat flower: 
1 to 5, opening of the flower; 6 to 8, closing of the flower. In 9, the 
flower is shown as closed, only the anther having escaped; in 10 none 
of the anthers succeeded in passing out of the enveloping chaff. 

fertilization takes place the anthers are pushed outside 
of the glumes and at this time the wheat is generally 
recognized as being "in bloom." Rainy weather at the 
time that fertilization is taking place is said to cause im- 
perfect fertilization, as the inside of the flower is likely to 
retain some of the water. 

382. The grain (Fig. 53). — The wheat grain is a uni- 
locular indehiscent caryopsis of oblong shape with one end 
slightly pointed, and with a longitudinal furrow on one side, 
causing a deep infolding of the pericarp. At the base of the 
grain opposite the furrow is the small embryo or germ. 



WHEAT 



311 







'.'fA& 







(I}'- 



P' 
Fig. 52. — The reproductive organs of wheat: (1) Spikelet, natural size, 
with a few joints of the rachis; / and g are flowerless glumes; k, florets 
bearing seeds; r, rudimentary florets. (2) Longitudinal diagram of 
flower just before flowering; anthers marked a, ovary, o; stigma, s; 
filament, /. (3) Diagram of flower just after flowering, showing how 
anthers are held within the envelope. (4) Ovary and stigma just prior 
to flowering. (.5) Ovary and stigma at the time of flowering. (6) Ovary 
and stigma shortly after flowering. (7), (8), and (9) the mature seed; 
a, the ventral side; h, the dorsal side; c, the germ or chit; s, the stem 
end of the germ; r, the root end; e, outer layers of bran; d, the incurved 
surface of bran on the ventral side of the seed. The white portions 
of (8) and (9) are the floury interior consisting of cells containing the 
gluten and starch from which white flour is made. 



312 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



1 -^Q^spo 

2 



The greater portion of the wheat grain consists of endo- 
sperm or starch cell? which form the chief constituent of 
wheat flour. The ratio of embryo to endosperm is about 
as one to thirteen. The embryo is 
composed essentially of two parts, viz., 
the miniature plant known as the veg- 
etative portion, and the absorbent 
organ, known as the scutellum, which 
on the germination of the seed, trans- 
fers the substance of the endosperm 
to the embryo for its nourishment. 
Surrounding the endosperm and em- 
bryo is a single layer of aleurone cells 
known as the aleurone layer, which 
makes up about eight per cent of the 
weight of the grain. 

Just outside of and surrounding the 

aleurone layer is a single layer of col- 

FiG. 53. — Cross-sec- lapsed cclls Called the tegmen or nu- 

i^c^ion'^ofgrarn'of cellus. This is in turn surrounded by 

wheat. Below: h^q tcsta, wliich covering contains most 

transverse section ' . r i 

of an unripe grain, of the Coloring matter of the gram. 

pericJrpT (Stouter This coloring matter may vary from 

n"eT fnte^^uirfent' ^^^ paler shadcs of yellow through am- 

(4) remains of nu- ber to a deep red, and gives the grain 

cellus; (5) aleurone . . . , ». , 

cells; (6) starch its characteristic color so often used 
^^^^^' in the classification of wheat varieties. 

The three layers above described are inclosed in the 
pericarp or outside covering, which corresponds to the 
pod in the pea. The nucellus, testa and pericarp con- 
stitute what is commonly spoken of as wheat bran. 

The wheat grain is very variable as regards size, color, 
hardness, shape, weight, and composition, all of these char- 




WHEAT 



313 



acters being influenced by type, variety, soil, and season. 

383. Composition. — The United States Department 

of Agriculture reports the composition of wheat as follows : 

Table 32. Composition of Wheat Grain and Wheat Straw ^ 





Gr.\in (Per Cent) 


Straw (Per Cent) 




Mini- 
mum 


Maxi- 
mum 


Average 


Mini- 
mum 


Maxi- 
mum 


Average 


Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Crude fiber 


7.1 
0.8 
8.1 
.4 
64.8 
1.3 


14.0 
3.6 

17.2 
3.1 

78.6 
3.9 


10.5 
1.8 

11.9 
1 8 


6.5 

3.0 

2.9 

34 3 


17.9 

7.0 

5.0 

42.7 

50.6 

1.8 


9.6 

4.2 

3.4 

38 1 


Nitrogen-free extract . 
Fat 


71.9 
2.1 


31.0 
0.8 


43.4 
1.3 



An important constituent of the protein in the wheat 
grain is gluten which is a mixture of the proteids gliadin 
and glutenin. The gluten is directly responsible for that 
property of wheat flour which causes it to form a porous 
bread when mixed with water, leavened, and baked. The 
gluten, being tenacious and elastic, imprisons the carbonic 
acid gas caused by the fermentive action of the yeast, and 
the expanding, imprisoned gas causes the bread to rise 
and become porous. The bread-making qualities of wheat 
are determined largely by both the amount and quality 
of the gluten that it contains. The quality of gluten is 
dependent upon the relative proportions of gliadin and 
glutenin in its makeup, the most desirable proportion be- 
ing from 65 to 75 per cent of the former and 25 to 35 per 
cent of the latter. 

The composition of wheat, particularly as regards its 
protein content, is greatly modified by seasonal conditions 
and to a less extent by fertilizers. A survey of the experi- 
mental evidence on this point reveals that the composition 
of any given variety will be uniform from year to year 

I U. S. Dept. of Agr. Office of Exp. Sta. E. S., Bui. 11. 



314 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

only when grown under the same climatic conditions and 
allowed to mature fully. Any condition that interrupts 
maturation will result in a higher percentage of protein 
in the crop, especially the grain, due to the relatively 
low starch formation under such conditions. Large, 
plump kernels produced under favorable conditions usually 
contain a lower percentage of protein than small, shriveled 
kernels produced under unfavorable conditions. 

TYPES AND VARIETIES OF WHEAT 

Wheat varieties are most often classified on the basis 
of those differences induced by environment rather than 
on the basis of botanical differences. However, wheat 
types present botanical relationships of sufficient impor- 
tance to merit consideration. 

384. Botanical classification of wheat types. — There 
are eight principal types of cultivated wheat. Of these 
eight types, six are closely related and will therefore cross 
readily with each other. The classification here given is 
the one made by Hackel, and is taken from Hunt's "Ce- 
reals in America:" 

ynonococcum (1) einkorn 
spelta (2) spelt 
dicoccum (3) emmer 

j vulgar e (4) common wheat 
compactum. (5) club or square-head wheat 
turgidum (6) poulard wheat 
[ durum (7) durum wheat 

polonicum (8) Polish wheat 

All of the subspecies of Triticum sativum cross readily 
with each other. Hunt states that "Einkorn never and 
Polish wheat rarely, gives rise to a fertile cross with com- 
mon wheat." 



Triticum i sativum 



tenax i 



WHEAT 315 

385. Einkom {T. monococcum). — This species has 
been grown only in an experimental way in the United 
States. It is a narrow-leaved, slender-stemmed, heavily 
bearded wheat with flattened, compact spike, and com- 
pressed grain that shows an angular form. It most nearly 
approaches the assumed wild form of wheat and has had 
no practical value for the American farmer. 

386. Spelt. (7". sativum var. spelta). — This species 
has been cultivated for centuries in Europe and Africa, 
it being a very ancient form. Unlike common wheat, 
the spikelets of spelt do not break away from the rachis 
leaving the zigzag stem, but in separating, a part of the 
rachis breaks off and remains attached to each spikelet. 
There are both winter and spring varieties. The winter 
beardless variety has proved most profitable. It is little 
grown in this country and in other countries has been 
largely replaced by other types. 

387. Emmer (T. sativum var. dicoccum). — This 
wheat looks very much like spelt and is often confused 
with it. The stems are usually pithy, leaves covered with 
velvety hairs, heads flattened, two-rowed, and bearded. 
Emmer is valuable as a stock food and is better adapted 
to dry regions than either einkorn or spelt. 

388. Common wheat (7". sativum var. vulgar e). — This 
subspecies is the wheat commonly grown throughout 
the wheat-growing countries of the world. It is more 
closely related to the club wheat than to any other sub- 
species. 

389. Club wheat (7^. sativum var. compadum). — 
This subspecies produces a shorter, more compact spike 
and a shorter, stiffer straw than common wheat. The 
apex of the spike is enlarged, and consequently presents 
a club-shape. This is the common wheat of Chile and the 



316 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Pacific coast region of the United States. Both winter 
and spring varieties are in use, the former being adapted 
only to mild climates. 

390. Poulard wheat (7"= sativum var. turgidum). — 
A broad-headed, short, stiff-bearded wheat grown in the 
Mediterranean region. It is much like dm'um wheat. 

391. Durum wheat {T. sativum var. durum). — This 




Fig. 54. — Representing heads of five varieties of hard winter and hard 
spring wheat: (1) Turkey Winter, a hard winter variety; (2) Fife, a 
hard red spring wheat; (3) Preston, a hard spring wheat; (4) Blue- 
stem, a hard red spring variety, and (5) a very hard amber spring 
wheat. 

wheat produces the flour from which macaroni is made, 
its higher gluten content and greater density making it 
superior for this purpose. It is a tall-growing sort, with 
broad, smooth leaves and heavily bearded heads resem- 
bling barley, with which it is often confused. The grains 
are large with pointed ends, semi-transparent, and of 
lower starch content than common wheat. Lyon states 
that "the qualities that give value to durum wheat are its 
ability to withstand drought and its resistance to rust." 



WHEAT 



317 



In the United States durum wheat is produced princi- 
pally in North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Nebraska, 
western Kansas, eastern Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. 
A small amount is grown in northwestern Texas. One va- 
riety of durum 
wheat has been 
grown in Texas un- 
der the name of 
Nicaragua wheat. 

392. Polish wheat 
(T. polonicum). — 
This wheat is grown 
in southern Europe. 
It is not a produc- 
tive type, but is 
thought by some to 
be fairly well 
adapted to the arid 
districts of this coun- 
try. In Polish wheat 
the palea of the 
lowest flower is only 
half as long as the 
flowering glume. In 
common wheat the 
palea is as long as 
its glume. 

393. Wheat varie- 
ties. — More than 




Fig. 55. — Heads of some beardless winter 
varieties of wheat: 1, Fultz; 2, Leap Pro- 
lific; 3, Purple Straw; 4, Poole; 5, Mealy; 
6, Dawson Golden Chaff. 



a thousand varieties of wheat are known. Most of these 
belong to the type known as common wheat. From this 
great number of varieties, not more than fifteen or twenty 
are important in the cotton-belt. No very satisfactory 



318 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



classification of wheat varieties has, as yet, been made. 
The most common classifications are those based on time 
of sowing, as spring and winter wheat (Fig. 54); on the 
color of the grain, as red and white wheat; on the density 




Fig. 56. — Heads of some bearded winter wheat 
varieties: 1, Turkey; 2, Bearded Purple Straw; 
3, Fulcaster. 

of the grain, as hard and soft wheat; on the presence or 
absence of awns, as bearded and beardless wheat, and on 
the products for which they are grown, as bread and 
macaroni wheat. 

394. Varieties for the cotton-belt (Figs. 55, 56). — 
Practically all of the wheat grown in the cotton-belt is of 



WHEAT 319 

the soft or semi-hard red winter type. In north central 
Texas and central Oklahoma there is a transition zone in 
which varieties of either the hard red winter wheat, belong- 
ing to the Turkey or Crimean type, or the soft or semi-hard 
wheats may be grown. However, the latter type of wheat is 
more commonly grown in this region and gives, on the av- 
erage, more satisfactory returns than the Turkey wheats. 
A list, containing the names of varieties for the cotton- 
belt that have been found to do well on the average for 
several seasons is given below. The varieties named are 
grouped by states, the recommendations being based 
largely on results obtained by the various southern ex- 
periment stations and also by the Bureau of Plant Indus- 
try of the United States Department of Agriculture: 



Bearded 
State Varieties or 

Beardless 

Alabama Blue Stem or Purple Straw . . . Beardless 

Fultz Beai'dless 

Golden Chaff Beardless 

Alabama Red Beardless 

Red Wonder Bearded 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Arkansas Red May Beardless 

Fultz Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Georgia Fultz Beardless 

Georgia Red Beardless 

Blue Stem Beardless 

Red May . . Beardless 

. Fulcaster Bearded 

Florida Wheat not successf ulh' grown 



320 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



Bearded 
State Varieties or 

Beardless 

Louisiana (Principally for 

Grazing) Red May Beardless 

Fultz Beardless 

Purple Straw Beardless 

Harvest King Beardless 

1 Fulcaster Bearded 

Mississippi Fultz ' Beardless 

Blue Stem Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

North Carolina Golden Chaff Beardless 

Purple Straw Beardless 

Harvest King Beardless 

Fultz Beardless 

Red May Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Dietz Bearded 

Red Wonder Bearded 

Lancaster Bearded 

Oklahoma (Soft winter 

varieties) Red Russian Beardless 

Early Red Clawson Beardless 

New Red Wonder Beardless 

Missouri Blue Stem Bearded 

Sibley New Golden Bearded 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Oklahoma (Hard winter 

varieties) Turkey Red Bearded 

Theiss Bearded 

Pester Boden Bearded 

Weissenburg Bearded 

Kharkof Bearded 



WHEAT 321 

Bearded 

State Varieties or 

Beardless 

South Carolina Red May Beardless 

Fultz Beardless 

Lancaster Bearded 

Red Wontler Bearded 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Tennessee Poole Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Mediterranean Bearded 

Nigger Bearded 

Texas (Soft winter 

varieties) Fultz Beardless 

Poole Beardless 

German Emperor I^eardless 

Michigan Amber Beardless 

Mediterranean Bearded 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Texas (Hard winter 

varieties) Defiance Bearded 

Kharkof Bearded 

Turkey Bearded 

Crimean Bearded 

395. Wheat-growing areas of the cotton-belt. — Nearly 
all of the wheat in the cotton-belt is produced in north- 
central Texas, northeastern Mississippi, and the central 
and northern sections of Alabama, Georgia, and South 
CaroHna. Much wheat is produced in the Piedmont and 
mountain sections of North Carolina, practically all of 
Tennessee and Virginia, and the central part of Oklahoma. 
These areas are either partially or wholly outside of the 



322 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

cotton-belt. Some wheat is produced on the red lands of 
northern Louisiana. 

396. Improvement of varieties. — The principles 
underlying the improvement of wheat varieties are the 
same as those discussed in connection with the improve- 
ment of oats. The qualities that are especially desired 
in varieties of wheat for the cotton-belt are high yield, 
rust- resistance, drought-resistance, earliness, and a higher 
protein content. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

WHEAT — CLIMATE, SOILS, ROTATIONS, CUL- 
TURAL METHODS AND HARVESTING 

The wheat plant is very sensitive to soil conditions. It 
is also much affected by climate, particularly as regards the 
ease with which it succumbs to diseases, especially rust. 
For these reasons there are vast areas in the cotton-belt 
that cannot be made to produce wheat successfully. 

397. Climate. — The range of climate under which 
wheat is successfully produced throughout the world is 
very wide. The bulk of the world's wheat crop, however, 
is produced in regions having cold winters. The three 
noted exceptions to this statement are the crops of Cal- 
ifornia, Egypt, and India. In the Northern hemisphere 
the wheat industry is gradually spreading northward, 
first as spring-sown varieties which after much selection 
and manipulation are sown with success in the fall. With 
proper attention spring wheat can often be changed to 
winter wheat in a relatively short time. Spring wheat 
once grew over Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska, where only 
winter wheat is now grown. This same change is taking 
place in the Dakotas and Minnesota. These modifica- 
tions, while partly due to changed cultural methods, show 
also the great adaptability of wheat to unfavorable cli- 
matic conditions. In the preceding chapter reference was 
made to the influence of climate on the chemical and 
physical constitution of the wheat kernel. The protein 

323 



324 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

and starch content of wheat are extremely sensitive to 
chmatic factors, although in an inverse ratio. Low al- 
titudes with an abundance of moisture produce soft wheats, 
whereas the hard red wheats are found in the relatively 
dry, elevated plains of the central West. As either ocean 
is approached the grain becomes softer and of lighter color. 
An excellent illustration of the influence of climate on the 
physical properties of wheat is to be found on our Pacific 
coast. When produced directly on the coast the kernels 
are soft, dark and thick-skinned. The physical characters 
shade off gradually to the inland district where the kernels 
are very hard and thin-skinned. The best quality to- 
gether with the highest yields of wheat are possible only 
in regions of cold winters, followed by long, cool, moder- 
ately wet spring seasons and dry sunny weather during 
ripening. 

398. Soils. — Wheat makes its best growth on clay 
or clay loam soils. It will not give profitable returns on 
deep sandy soils, nor on sour or acid soils. Sandy soils 
should never be used for wheat growing, and acid soils 
should be used only after the application of from 1000 to 
2000 pounds of slacked lime, or 2000 to 4000 pounds of 
ground limestone, to the acre. In the cotton-belt the 
best wheat soils are the reddish clay or clay loams of the 
Cecil series occurring extensively in the Piedmont region 
of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, 
the limestone valleys of the above states, the black waxy 
lime lands of north central Texas, northeastern Mississippi 
and central Alabama and the red lands of northern Lou- 
isiana. Wheat is a relatively weak feeder and demands a 
fairly rich soil of good physical constitution. Hence the 
soils above mentioned must usually be much modified by 
the addition of vegetable matter in the form of animal or 



WHEA T — CULTURAL METHODS 325 

green manures and in many cases by the application of 
commercial fertilizers. 

399. Rotations. — In the cotton-belt the crop pre- 
ceding wheat is usually corn in which cowpeas have been 
sown as a catch-crop between the rows. That it is advis- 
able to have wheat follow a soil-improving crop like cow- 
peas or soybeans when possible, has been amply demon- 
strated by both farm experience and carefully conducted 
experiments. In sections where red clover or crimson 
clover do well these crops usually follow the wheat in the 
rotation, the wheat being seeded after corn grown with 
or without cowpeas. In devising a rotation for wheat the 
farmer should keep in mind the following: (1) When pos- 
sible allow the wheat to 'follow a soil-improving crop ; (2) 
the wheat should not occupy a position in the rotation at 
which time the soil is foul with weeds, as they may render 
the soil too loose for best results, or otherwise injure the 
crop; (3) wheat should not follow oats or rye in the rota- 
tion as these crops are likely to be followed by volunteer 
plants the seeds of which would become mixed with the 
wheat. 

For the red clay and valley lands of the Piedmont sec- 
tion the North Carolina Station suggests the following 
rotation : First year — wheat with red clover sown in the 
spring on the fall-sown wheat; second year — red clover 
with the second crop turned under after maturity of seed 
for soil improvement and for storing seed in the soil; third 
year — corn. 

Duggar suggests the following rotation for sections where 
red clover does not thrive: First year — cotton, with crim- 
son clover seeded in September between the rows; second 
year — cotton; third year — corn with cowpeas between 
the rows; fourth year — wheat followed by cowpeas. 



326 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

An excellent three-year rotation adapted to a large part 
of the wheat-growing area of the cotton-belt is: First 
year — cotton ; second year — corn with cowpeas between 
the rows; third year — wheat followed by cowpeas. 

The Kentucky Station has adopted the following rota- 
tion : First year — corn followed by rye for a winter cover- 
crop; second year — soy-beans or cowpeas; third year — 
wheat; fourth year — clover. 

400. Fertilizers. — Fertilizers, if necessary for wheat, 
are most profitable when the crop is grown in a rotation 
that keeps the soil well supplied with decayed vegetable 
matter. On much of the waxy lime lands of Texas and 
Alabama direct fertilization of wheat is unnecessary. 
These soils usually contain an abundance of mineral mat- 
ter, and the indirect method of fertilizing by growing 
wheat in a rotation that supplies the soil with organic mat- 
ter renders this mineral matter available and supplies an 
abundance of nitrogen. The red clay and valley soils of 
the Piedmont region are generally well supplied with 
potash but are rather deficient in phosphoric acid. The 
amount of nitrogen in these soils varies, of course, with the 
amount of organic matter present. Wheat following a 
soil-improving crop on these Piedmont soils will usually 
need the application of a phosphatic fertilizer only. In the 
older wheat-growing regions of the cotton-belt, particularly 
when the wheat is grown on land that has been under 
cultivation for many years, it is customary to fertilize 
rather heavily. On such soils liberal fertilization is often 
profitable, but nimierous experiments have clearly demon- 
strated that the yield does not increase proportionately 
as the quantity of fertilizer is increased. Care should 
be exercised to see that the profitable limit is not ex- 
ceeded. 



WHEA T — CULTURAL METHODS 327 

Burgess, in discussing the fertilization of wheat on the 
Piedmont soils of North Carolina, says: 

"A good application of fertilizer for wheat is 300 to 600 
pounds per acre. Where the land has been well prepared 
and is in good condition, it will pay to fertilize liberally. 
As a rule, the fertilizer should be applied in the fall at the 
time of seeding. Good results will be obtained from the 
use of one-half the nitrogen in the fall along with the 
phosphoric acid and potash and the other half as a top 
dressing in the spring after growth has well started from 
nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia. Where wheat or 
other small grain has been grown in one of the rotations 
suggested above or similar ones with soil-improving crops, 
one-half of the nitrogen in the mixtures may be omitted 
after the rotation has been repeated one or more times, 
and may be left out altogether after sufficient organic 
matter, or humus, has been stored in the soil to produce a 
sufficiently large development of stalk for a good crop of 
grain. In this case a top dressing of 75 to 100 pounds per 
acre of nitrate of soda may be given just about the time 
the plants begin to joint in the spring if the crop is not 
found growing off nicely." ^ 

CULTURAL METHODS 

401. Preparing the seed-bed. — The ideal seed-bed 
for wheat is one that is thoroughly pulverized, well com- 
pacted, with a loose mulch on the surface and with a good 
contact with the subsoil. To accomplish the above re- 
sults, the land should be plowed as early as practicable 
after the previous crop has been removed. Following 
plowing, the disk and smoothing harrow should be used 
liberally to destroy clods, keep down grass, and to aid the 
1 N. C. Dep't of Agr. Bui., whole no. 159, vol. 32, No. 10. 



328 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

soil in settling and becoming firm. Running a heavy 
roller over the soil soon after plowing to break the clods 
and firm the soil is often advisable. The roller should be 
followed immediately with a smoothing harrow. In the 
drier wheat-growing regions the value of early plowing 
for wheat cannot be overestimated as is shown by an ex- 
periment made by the Oklahoma Station/ in which plats 
were plowed on July 19th, August 15th, and Septem- 
ber 11th. All plats were seeded September 15th: 

Date of Plowing Yield to the acre, bu. 

July 19th, 31.3 

August 15th, 23.5 

September 11th, 15.3 

Plowing to a moderate depth is usually better for wheat 
than very deep or very shallow plowing. On soils of a 
rather loose structure and particularly where the preceding 
crop was corn that received good cultivation, wheat is 
sometimes drilled in without plowing, the land being 
disked thoroughly before the crop is seeded so as to make 
a good seed-bed three or four inches deep. This method 
of preparation often gives good results, but in the large 
number of cases plowing before harrowing is advisable 
and is absolutely essential on compact clay soils. Soils 
on which very much vegetation in the form of green- 
manure, weeds or grass is growing should be thoroughly 
disked before plowing, to cut up the vegetation and render 
the soil more easily compacted. 

402. Date of seeding. — Wheat is hardier toward 
cold than oats, and may be seeded later. Where the 
Hessian fly is troublesome, as is the case in North Caro- 
lina, northern Georgia, and northern Alabama, it is best 
to delay seeding until immediately after the first frost, 
1 Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 47, pp. 26-48. 



WHEA T — CULTURAL METHODS 320 

as the fly la3^s no more eggs after this date. Wheat sown 
in northern Georgia during the last 10 days in October 
has been found to escape injury from the Hessian fly. 
In sections where the Hessian fly does not injure wheat, 
larger yields can be secured by seeding rather early to 
allow the plants to make a vigorous root-development 
before cold weather, and to allow the crop to make the 
maximum utilization of the plant-food in the soil. Duggar 
suggests the following periods during which the bulk of 
the wheat crop should be seeded in Alabama: 

North Alabama, October 10th to November 1st. 

Central Alabama, November 1st to 15th. 

South Alabama, November 15th to 30th. 

In the wheat-growing regions of Oklahoma, the winter 
wheat is sown from the 15th of September to the 15th of 
October. Field trials by the Oklahoma Station do not 
indicate much difference between the respective dates. 
In north Texas wheat is usually seeded during the latter 
part of October and the first part of November. 

403. Rate of seeding. — The usual rate of seeding for 
wheat is from 4 to 6 pecks to the acre. The greater num- 
ber of experiments on this point indicate that under favor- 
able conditions, 4 pecks are sufficient when drilled and 5 
pecks when broadcast. If the seed-bed is poorly prepared, 
or a poor quality of seed is used, larger amounts should 
be sown. Also more seed is required for late sowing than 
for carh' sowing and more for poor soil than for rich soil. 

404. Methods of seeding. — The methods employed 
in seeding wheat are (1) broadcast seeding, and (2) seeding 
in drills 6, 7 or 8 inches apart. 

A review of the experimental evidence on drilling ver- 
sus broadcasting wheat shows many advantages in favor 
of drilling, chief of which are: (1) Increased yield. The 



330 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

seed being sown at a uniform depth, germination is also 
uniform. A smaller percentage of the young plants are 
injured by dry weather subsequent to seeding. The seed 
being sown in slight furrows is not so subject to "heaving" 
or winter-killing. (2) The grain ripens more uniformly, 
(3) A saving of from one to two pecks of seed wheat to the 
acre when the seed is drilled. 

In drilling wheat, care should be exercised to see that 
the seed is deposited on the bottom of the furrows opened 
by the drill. If the seed is caught by the closing furrow 
before it has reached the bottom, germination is likely not 
to be uniform. Grains that are placed on the firm soil at 
the bottom of the furrows are in an ideal position for se- 
curing moisture. 

405. Wheat-seeding machinery. — The evolution of 
seeding machines for wheat involves four different stages 
of improvement. These are (1) the broadcast seeder 
where gravity alone is utilized for the purpose of distrib- 
uting the seed; (2) the broadcast seeder in which the 
seed is brought from the seed cups by feed-wheels attached 
to a revolving shaft spoken of as "force feed" instead of 
"gravity feed"; (3) the ordinary drill with force feed, the 
grain falling into a tube which instead of scattering it, 
carries it in a steady stream to the bottom of the slight 
furrows produced by the drill; (4) the drill with attach- 
ments to press the soil firmly about the seed, known as 
the press-drill. This is considered the best machine for 
seeding wheat. 

The wheat drill is made in three different forms as re- 
gards the arrangement for depositing the seed in the soil. 
These are (1) hoe-drills, by which the ground is opened 
with small shovels, called hoes, the tubes depositing the 
seed in a stream into the furrow immediately behind each 



WHEA T — CULTURAL METHODS 331 

hoe; (2) disk-drills, and (3) drills with runners or shoes 
known as shoe-drills. The hoe-drills, while operating un- 
der possibly a larger number of conditions than the other 
types, are heavy of draft and clog easily on filthy land. 
The disk-drill is preferable to other types where the land 
contains much htter. Most drills are equipped with fer- 
tilizer attachments, and attachments for sowing grass or 
clover seed can be purchased if desired. 

406. Cultivating wheat. — Wheat is often harrowed 
with an adjustable spike-tooth harrow or weeder in the 
early spring before the booting stage. This practice is 
especially beneficial on stiff soils that are deficient in vege- 
table matter. Drilled wheat is more satisfactorily har- 
rowed than broadcast wheat. The practice of planting 
wheat in wide drills and cultivating it much as we culti- 
vate corn has been advocated by a few farmers, but has 
never become common in this country. 

407. Pasturing wheat. — Wheat, like oats, furnishes 
excellent winter pasture for almost all kinds of live-stock. 
The precautions to be observed in pasturing wheat are 
the same as for oats, paragraph 360. 

HARVESTING WHEAT 

408. Methods. — The methods of harvesting, thrash- 
ing, and storing wheat are similar to those of oats. In 
the greater part of the cotton-belt and throughout the 
entire eastern United States, the self-binder is largely 
used for cutting the crop. In the Great Plains area west 
of the Mississippi River both self-binders and headers are 
used, the latter machines being u.sed principally in the 
western sections of Kansas, Nebraska and the Dakotas. 
The combined harvester and thrasher, which cuts, 
thrashes, and sacks the grain in one operation, is very 



332 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON -BELT 

generally used on the Pacific coast and in the extreme 
Northwest. 

409. When to harvest. — For the production of grain, 
wheat should be harvested at that stage of maturity when 
the grains are still sufficiently soft to be easily indented 
with the thumb nail, but too hard to be easily crushed 
between the fingers. At this stage most of the straw will 
have turned yellow. According to Hunt, "the indications 
are that if allowed to stand beyond the period of full 
maturation, a slight decrease in the actual substance of 
the grain may take place, " as the seed continues to respire 
and give off carbon dioxide, as explained by Deherain. 

410. Methods of handling as related to quality of 
grain. — East of the Mississippi River, most of the wheat 
in the cotton-belt is either stacked in the open or stored 
in large barns as soon as it becomes sufficiently dry in 
the shock. In Texas and Oklahoma and in fact through- 
out most of the Great Plains regions a large proportion of 
the wheat crop is thrashed direct from the shock. The 
wheat is allowed to stand in the shock from three to six 
weeks or longer, during which time it is often exposed to 
heavy rainfall. In many cases the shocks are very care- 
lessly constructed and entirely unprotected by cap-bundles. 
Investigations have shown that the exposure of wheat 
in the shock to the effect of alternate rain and hot sun 
"causes the kernels to swell and the branny coats to loosen, 
destroying the natural color or 'bloom' and giving them 
what is termed a 'bleached' appearance." As the grade 
that is given to wheat upon the terminal markets is deter- 
mined largely by its appearance, condition and test weight 
a bushel, that portion of the crop that has been affected 
by exposure as described above, must of necessity be 
graded lower than wheat marketed in good condition. 



WHEA T — CULTURAL METHODS 333 

As a rule, millers hold that weathered grain is much im- 
proved in quahty if it is allowed to go through a sweat 
in the stack. If the grain is thrashed and stored in the 
bin before it has gone through a sweat, the result is that 
the grain "sweats" in the bin where the circulation of 
air is much more limited than in the stack, the heat is 
not carried away rapidly enough, and the temperature 
becomes so high as to often result in "heat-damaged or 
bin-burnt" grain. Unless the period from harvesting to 
thrashing is quite dry, shock-thrashed wheat almost 
invariably contains a higher moisture content than stack- 
thrashed wheat. This, of course, renders the shock- 
thrashed grain more difficult to keep in good condition 
when stored. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

WHEAT — WEEDS, INSECT ENEMIES AND FUN- 
GOUS DISEASES 

The injury to growing wheat caused by weeds, insects 
and diseases is surprisingly large. A very brief description 
of those pests of greatest economic importance together 
with the more important remedial measures are given in 
this chapter. 

411. Weeds. — The almost universal occurrence of 
certain species of weeds in wheat fields not only greatly 
reduces the yield of wheat but in many cases the grain is 
much reduced in quality on account of the presence of the 
weed seeds. Three of these are of primary importance in 
the cotton-belt and deserve special mention. These are: 

(1) Chess or cheat {Bromus secalinus) 

(2) Cockle (Lychnis Githago) 

(3) Field garlic {Allium vineale). 

Chess or cheat is an aimual grass, growing to a height of 
two to three feet. The stems are erect and smooth, ter- 
minating in a loose, open panicle, the branches of which 
are somewhat drooping. Its common occurrence in wheat 
fields has led many farmers to believe that wheat some- 
times changes into chess as it grows, a miracle which of 
course never happens. Wheat and chess are not closely 
related, belonging to separate tribes in the grass family. 
The fact that chess often occurs in a wheat field where 
clean seed was sown is accounted for by the great vitality 

334 



WHEAT — WEEDS, INSECTS, DISEASES 335 

of the chess seed. These seed will often reiiuiin buried in 
the soil for several years before coming up. Its great 
prolificacy as compared with wheat is also responsible 
for the belief that wheat turns to chess. As chess seed is 
smaller and Hghter than wheat, it can be removed by 
carefully screening and fanning the seed wheat. Also if 
the wheat is stirred in water just before sowing the chess 
seed will rise to the top and can be taken off. Hand-pulling 
and burning the plants in the field is often resorted to. 
Land that is badly infested with chess should be planted 
to intertilled crops until the chess has been eradicated. 

Cockle is particularly a weed of grain fields, the seed 
usually being sown with the seed grain. It grows to a 
height varying from one to three feet. The stem is slender 
and erect with a few branches near the top. The flowers 
are reddish purple and are borne on long, hairy peduncles. 
The calyx is ovoid, quite hairy and distinctly ten-ribbed. 
Five long, pointed lobes extend beyond the petals. The 
seeds are borne in ovoid, one-celled capsules averaging 
about a half-inch in length. The seeds are black or dark 
brown, round or somewhat triangular in shape with rows 
of short teeth on the surface. The seed of cockle is poison- 
ous and when ground with wheat renders the flour un- 
wholesome. For this reason the presence of cockle in wheat 
will materially reduce the grade of the wheat on the mar- 
ket. The chief means of control is the sowing of clean 
seed. When cockle is present in the field it should be hand- 
pulled before the seeds are mature. Badly infested fields 
should not be sown to grain but planted to intertilled 
crops. 

Field garlic grows from one to three feet tall. The 
plants spring from "small, ovoid, membranous-coated 
bulbs." The flowers, which are borne in umbels, are of 



^ 



336 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

pinkish purple color. The seed-head consists of a cluster 
of small bulbs varying in number from twenty to a hun- 
dred. These bulblets get into the grain and greatly reduce 
its quality. They can be separated at the mill by artifi- 
cially drying the wheat, and then by passing it through the 
ordinary cleaning machinery. 

412. Insect enemies. — A large number of insects 
feed on and injure growing wheat. Among the most im- 
portant insect enemies of wheat in the cotton-belt are the 
Hessian fly and the chinch-bug. 

413. Hessian fly {Cecidomyia destructor). — The Hes- 
sian fly is a small, dark-colored, mosquito-like gnat about 
one-eighth inch long. There are four stages to each gener- 
ation as follows: (1) egg, (2) maggot or larva, (3) pupa, us- 
ually spoken of as the flaxseed stage, and (4) the mature 
winged insect. The eggs are usually deposited on the upper 
surface of the young leaf or in case of the spring brood they 
are "sometimes thrust beneath the sheath of the leaf on the 
lower joints." The eggs hatch into small pinkish larvae 
which find their way down to the base of the leaf-sheath. 
Many plants are completely killed in the fall when the larvae 
begin to devour the diminutive culms before the plants 
have begun to stool. In the spring the injuries produced 
at the base of the first two or three leaves will cause many 
of the plants to fall before the grain is ripe. This insect 
is probably the most injurious insect enemy of growing 
wheat in the cotton-belt. It is especially prevalent in the 
Piedmont sections of North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, and Alabama. The principal preventive meas- 
ures are as follows: (1) Late planting of winter wheat. 
This is undoubtedly the most practical means of preventing 
damage as wheat sown after the first frost will usually 
germinate after the Hessian fly has disappeared. (2) 



WHEAT— WEEDS, INSECTS, DISEASES 337 

Burning the wheat stubble. It has been noticed that the 
second brood often develops in the lower joints of the 
wheat, being left in the stubble at harvest, mostly in 
the flaxseed stage. (3) Plowing under stubble, and subse- 
quently rolling it to prevent any maturing adults from 
escaping. (4) Rotation of crops. 

414. Chinch-bugs {Blissus leucopterus) and weevils. — 
The chinch-bug is responsible for an enormous annual loss 
to the wheat crop. This pest is described and certain reme- 
dial measures are outlined in the chapter on insect enemies 
of corn. As the chinch bugs hibernate in old grass and rub- 
bish during the winter months, the importance of burning 
over all waste land places where they would likely find pro- 
tection cannot be too strongly emphasized. Also the early 
planting of such crops as millet, or spring wheat to attract 
the chinch-bugs in their early flight is recommended by 
many. After these trap-crops become infested they are 
plowed under. 

Weevils often attack wheat in the shock, stack or bin. 
In the two former cases no effective treatment can be 
given. The wheat should be thrashed as early as pos- 
sible, and the grain placed in tightly constructed, closely 
covered bins and fumigated with vapors of carbon- 
disulfide. One pound of carbon-disulfide will treat 30 
bushels of wheat (see chapter on Insect Enemies of Corn, 
p. 270). 

415. Fungous diseases. — Four fungous diseases cause 
serious injury to wheat. Of these four diseases, two are 
rusts, and two are smuts. One form of rust, Puccinia 
nibigo-vera, occurs principally on the leaves and is 
known as the early orange leaf-rust. The other form, 
Puccinia graminis, affects principally the stems and is 
known as the late stem-rust. There is no treatment 



338 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

for these rusts. They can be controlled to a large extent 
by growing rust-resistant varieties. For a description 
of rust see the chapter on Fungous Diseases of Oats, 
p. 301. 

The two common smuts of wheat are the loose smut 
(Ustilago tritici) and the covered smut {Tilletia foe tens). 
The latter disease is often called bunt or stinking smut. 
Both of these diseases are preventable. 

416. Loose smut. — This disease turns the entire 
wheat head, including the chaff, into a black powdery mass 
which is usually blown away by the wind, leaving only 
the bare rachis with a few smut spores sticking to it. The 
seed treatment for this disease is rather difficult on account 
of the fact that the smut lives over inside the wheat kernel. 
The spores, which are ripe at flowering time, find lodgment 
in the flowers of unaffected wheat plants. These spores 
soon germinate and send a little filament into the young 
kernel, which later develops into a young smut plant. 
This, however, does not interfere with the development of 
the kernel, and the disease is thus carried over inside the 
kernel to the succeeding crop, where it again becomes 
evident at flowering time. 

This disease can be prevented by subjecting the seed to 
what is known as the modified hot-water treatment, which 
is as follows: Soak the seed for not less than four hours or 
more than six hours in cold water. Remove, drain, and im- 
mediately immerse the seed for a moment in water kept at 
a temperature of about 120° y.; the seed is then immersed 
for 10 minutes in water kept at a constant temperature of 
129° F. Comparatively small quantities of seed should be 
treated at a time so that all of the seed may become 
equally heated. Water heated above 129°F. must not be 
used. This treatment is most safely used in connection 



WHEAT — WEEDS, INSECTS, DISEASES 339 

with a seed-plat on which the grain to be used in seeding 
the general crop is groWn.^ 

417. Covered smut, stinking smut or bunt. — This 
smut produces its spores exclusivel}' within the kernel, the 
chaff being unaffected. When the diseased kernels are 
examined they are found to be completely filled with a 
black, dust-like mass, which has a "peculiar fetid odor 
like that of decaying fish." In the thrashing and other- 
wise handling the grains from the diseased crop, the 
smutted kernels are broken and the spores find lodgment 
on the sound grains. They are thus carried over to the 
next crop. As the spores of this disease do not mature 
until the grains are mature, they are carried over only on 
the surface of the grains and can be killed by any method 
that thoroughly disinfects the outside seed-coat. The 
spores of the loose smut mature when the grain is in bloom 
and hence get into the flowers, from which they penetrate 
the young kernels. The important seed treatments for 
covered smut are the following : 

Hot-water treatment. — Soak the seed for 10 to 15 
minutes in water kept at a temperature of from 132° to 
133° F. The seed should be immediately dried following 
the treatment. 

Formalin treatment. — Thoroughly moisten the seed 
with a solution made by mixing one pound of formalin to 
every 45 gallons of water. The grain may be either 
sprinkled or soaked, the essential point being the thorough 
wetting of every kernel. If sowing is done immediately 
the seed should be dried sufficiently to run through the 
drills. Seed that is to be kept any length of time after 
being treated should be spread out on a clean floor and 
thoroughly dried. 

1 Farmers Bui., 507, p. 27. 



340 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Copper-sulfate treatment. — Immerse the seed for one 
to two minutes in a solution made by dissolving one pound 
of copper sulfate in four gallons of water. Remove and 
dry the grain; it is then ready to sow. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

RYE {Secale cereale) 

Rye is an annual, winter-growing, cereal grass of minor 
importance in the cotton-belt. The relatively small 
acreage devoted to this crop in the south is utilized pri- 
marily for pasture or soiling purposes. On poor sandy 
soils it makes an excellent green-manure. When rye is 
allowed to mature the grain is used as a human food or 
for stock, the straw being largely used for bedding for 
domestic animals. Rye straw is also used in the manufac- 
ture of paper, and for packing fruit trees and other articles 
for shipment. 

418. Origin and nativity. — According to Hackel, 
the original species of rye is a perennial grass (Secale 
montanum) once found growing wild in the mountains 
of the Mediterranean countries from Spain and Morocco 
to Central Asia. This wild form has a jointed rachis which 
breaks apart upon ripening. This character and also the 
perennial habit have been lost under cultivation. The 
existence of rye in the wild state at the present time is 
said to be doubtful. 

419. Description. — The culms of rye are more slender 
and much taller than those of wheat, growing sometimes 
to a height of six to seven feet on rich soils. The inflores- 
cence is a long, slender, distinctly compressed, profusely 
bearded spike. The spikelets are two-flowered. Each 
flower produces three stamens. As the two flowers in a 
spikelet develop about equally the rye spike is distinctly 

.341 



342 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



four-rowed. The flowering glume is always awned and the 
keel of the glume is strongly barbed. The organs of 
reproduction are quite similar to those of wheat, except 
that in rye the anthers are larger. The rye grain is slender, 
rather dark in color, with a somewhat wrinkled surface, 
and has a rather shallow longitudinal crease on the side 
opposite the germ. In comparison with wheat, the rye 
spike is longer and more flattened; the beards are much 
longer and less spreading and are loosely arranged in two 
rows; the individual grains on the head are partially 
exposed ; the grains are longer, more slender, more pointed 
and have a more wrinkled surface; the longitudinal crease 
is less distinct and the texture of the grain is harder and 
tougher, requiring more power to grind it. 

The rye grain, on germinating, throws out a whorl of 
four instead of three temporary roots. This characteristic 
is thought to account partially for the greater hardiness 
of rye as compared with the other small grains. The 
young rye plant has a distinctly red tinge which serves 
to distinguish it from wheat. In the spring the plants 
take on a grayish green color. The fall growth of rye is 
more spreading than wheat. 

420. Composition. — The following table summarized 
from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding" shows the composi- 
tion of rye grain together with that of corn and wheat: 

Table 33. Percentage Composition of the Grain op Rye, 
Wheat and Corn 





Water 


Protein 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitro- 
gen- 
Free 
Extract 


Ether 
Extract 


A.SH 


Rve 

Wheat 


11. G 
10.5 
10.(5 


10.6 
11.9 
10.3 


1.7 
1.8 
2.2 


72.5 
71.9 
70.4 


1.7 
2.1 
5.0 


1.9 

1.8 




1.5 









RYE 343 

Rye contains less fat than corn and less protein than 
wheat. Otherwise the three grains are quite similar in 
composition. The composition of rye straw varies very 
little from that of wheat straw. Rye straw is much 
tougher than wheat straw and is of little value for feeding 
purposes. 

421. Varieties. — Unlike the other cereals, rye has 
developed very few varieties. Three reasons have been 
given for this: (1) unlike the other small grains, rye cross- 
fertilizes freely; (2) the innate tendency of lye toward 
variation is less than in most other cereals; (3) in the 
United States no attempt has been made to improve rye, 
either by selection or by crossing. Both spring and winter 
forms of rye have been developed, the latter form being 
raised almost entirely in America. Only one variety is 
grown throughout the cotton-belt. It is known simply 
as "Southern Rye." 

422. Climate. — While rye is very hardy and natu- 
rally a plant of cold climate, it does not seem to be very 
much influenced by hot weather. Rye can be success- 
fully grown in latitudes too far south for success with 
wheat. On the other hand, it has been matured in Alaska 
as a winter grain. 

423. Soils and fertilizers. — While rye can be grown 
on almost any soil provided it is well drained, it makes its 
best growth on fertile soils containing somewhat less clay 
than our best wheat soils. In fact vye. is admirably adapted 
to fertile sandy soils. Rye is an exceptionally strong 
feeder and its ability to grow on soils of low productive- 
ness has made for it the reputation of being the grain of 
poverty. This reputation has tended to crowd rye off of 
the most fertile soils and is primarily responsil)le for the 
low yields of this crop in the South. It is nevertheless true 



344 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

that rye will respond as liberally to good culture and ju- 
dicious fertilization as any other cereal. The principles 
discussed in the fertilization of oats and wheat are equally 
applicable to rye. 

424. Rotations. — Rye, like practically all other field 
crops, should be grown in a well-planned rotation. In 
the cotton-belt rye should fill the place in the rotation 
that would otherwise be taken by wheat or oats. Rye 
is especially adapted to short-course rotations in which 
case it is largely utilized as a winter cover-crop, for winter 
pasture or for soiling purposes. On poor sandy soils rye 
often occupies a position in the rotation between two 
intertilled crops and is plowed under as a green-manure. . 

425. Seed, — As a rule northern-grown rye should 
not be sown in the cotton-belt. The plants spread out 
more closely on the ground than plants from southern- 
grown seed and is therefore not so good for early winter 
pasture. Also the crop from northern-grown seed is more 
subject to rust, the plants are smaller, and the yield 
usually less than from "Southern rye." Home-grown 
seed should be sown whenever circumstances permit. 

426. Culture. — Rye is most often sown on unplowed 
land following corn or some other intertilled crop. If 
sown with the drill the land is well harrowed before seed- 
ing. One-horse drills are often used and the rye sown in 
the standing corn, the drill passing between the rows. 
Broadcast sowing is very common, particularly when the 
crop is intended for grazing. For soiling purposes, rye is 
often sown in drills 18 to 24 inches apart. The sowing 
season for rye is longer than for any other small grain. 
For early soiling the crop is sometimes sown as early as 
September 1st. On poor soils, early sowing is very desir- 
able in order that the crop may get well established before 



RYE 345 

winter sets in. Rye is sometimes sown as late as Decem- 
ber 1st but these very late sowings usually produce small 
yields. The usual rates of seeding rye are 4 to 6 pecks to 
an acre for grain and 6 to 8 pecks for pasture. When sown 
in 18-inch drills, one bushel to the acre is sufficient. 

427. Harvesting and handling. — Ordinarily the meth- 
ods of harvesting rye are the same as for wheat and 
oats. When rye is sown on very fertile soils the culms 
often grow to such length as to cause the crop to lodge 
and tangle. Under such conditions harvesting is attended 
with special difficulties. The binder is not especially 
constructed to harvest grain that is seven feet tall and 
unless the machine has a very long table and the straw 
is especially dry, the elevators will clog and the tying will 
be very unsatisfactory. Where the grain is badly lodged, 
it is often necessary to cut on only one or two sides of the 
field. The self-rake reaper is sometimes used to cut very 
heavy rye, the bundles being bound and shocked by, hand. 
Four or five men are necessary to bind rye by hand as fast 
as a reaper will cut it. This makes this method of har- 
vesting expensive, but special conditions may make it nec- 
essary. The precautions to be taken in shocking, thresh- 
ing, and storing rye are the same as for wheat and oats. 

When properly bundled, good rye straw has a high value 
on the market. "If straw is to sell well, it must be threshed 
without breaking or tangling and then rebound into bun- 
dles before baling. This was done by flailing long after 
that implement had disappeared for other uses. It is now 
handled by a special type of threshing machine known as 
a 'beater.' This has a cylinder about six feet in length 
run at a very high speed, and armed with only slight 
corrugations instead of the usual teeth. The bundles are 
unbound and fed through this, lying parallel to the axis 



346 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

of the cylinder instead of endwise as is the usual way. 
In the old style of machines the straw is discharged on 
a table in shape so that one or two men can rebind it with 
bands of straw caught up from the bundle. In more 
modern machines, the binding is done with twine by a 
modified form of the ordinary binder. The straw is baled 
in the old type of open-topped box-press, being tramped 
in bundle by bundle and tramped down. This is pecu- 
liarly hard, exhausting work but it seems to be the only 
acceptable method of baling rye-straw. The bales weigh 
200 to 250 pounds." ^ 

428. Enemies. — Rye is injured by the chinch-bug 
and the Hessian fly. Few other insects do serious damage 
to rye. At least two kinds of rust — the black-stem rust 
and the orange rust of the leaves, — attack rye. Smut 
sometimes attacks rye, the treatment being the same as 
for oat smut, page 302. 

Ergot, sometimes known as spurred rye, is probably 
the greatest enemy of rye, although this disease is not 
especially prevalent in the cotton-belt. Ergot is caused 
by a fungus {Clavicepa yuryurea) which attacks the grains, 
causing them to become greatly enlarged on account of 
the growth of the fruiting spores. It is claimed that "wide 
spread disease and trouble" have been produced in Euro- 
pean countries as a result of using ergot-infested rye for 
human food. From a physiological standpoint ergot is 
rather important, it being used as a medicine in obstetrics. 
It is said that when fed to animals ergot sometimes causes 
abortion and also gangrene of the extremities. Rye 
containing ergot should not be sown and land which has 
produced the diseased rye should be planted to other 
crops for two or three years. 

' Van Wagenen in Bailey's " Cyclo. of Am. Agr., Vol. 2," p. 561. 



CHAPTER XXX 

BARLEY {Hordeum sativum) 

Barley, like rye, is an annual cereal grain of minor 
importance in the cotton-belt. It belongs to the same 
tribe as wheat and rye. In Europe where barley is ex- 
tensively grown, the grain is largely utilized in the pro- 
duction of beer. Much of the grain is also used as a stock 
food, particularly in the form of barley meal. Malt 
sprouts and brewers' grains are two important by-products 
in the production of beverages from barley. They are 
used as food for domestic animals. Barley straw is at 
least equal in feeding value to oat straw. The chief use 
of barley in the cotton-belt is for pasturage and soiling. 
Barley pasture is considered to be more palatable than that 
produced by other small-grains. 

429. Nativity. — Barley is thought to be native to 
western Asia, and to have originated from the wild West 
Asian Hordeum spontaneum. Like wheat its culture 
antedates written history. Down to the close of the fif- 
teenth century barley was universally used as a bread 
plant throughout the civilized countries of Europe, Asia, 
and Africa. 

430. Description (Figs. 57-59). — The barley plant, 
aside from the spike, resembles wheat in appearance and 
habit of growth. Usually the culms are shorter than those 
of wheat, and the proportion of straw to grain is less 
than in wheat or oats. The leaves of barley are provided 

347 



348 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

with larger auricles than those of any of the other small 
grains. 

The barley spike consists of a long, jointed rachis bearing 
three spikelets at each joint. The spikelets are one- 




FiG. 57. — Heads of Tennessee Winter barley, 
side and front views; also detached kernels 
with the awns removed. 

flowered. Each flower produces three stamens and a 
double, plume-like stigma similar to wheat. The some- 
what awl-shaped outer glumes are about three-eighths inch 
long, each bearing a short, flexible beard about three- 
fourths inch long. The flowering glume is distinctly five- 
nerved and in most varieties is prolonged into a stiff beard 



BARLEY 



349 




six to eight inches long with barbed edges. At maturity, 

the flowering glume and palea usuall}^ adhere tightly to the 
kernel and are removed with difl^i- 
ciilty. Therefore, the barley grain, 
like the oat grain, consists of the ker- 
nel, the palea and the flowci-ing glume. 
These two latter parts are called 
the hull or husk. The barley kernel 
resembles very closely the wheat grain. 
The legal weight of a bushel of 
barley grain is 
48 pounds. The 
actual weight 
may vary from 
45 to 50 pounds. 
431. Composition. — Barley is 

recognized as a nutritious grain. It 

is more carbonaceous than either 

wheat or oats. Hulled barley is 

very similar in composition to 

wheat. Ordinarily barley grain is 

higher than wheat in crude fiber on 

account of the hull. Unlike oats, 

the hull of barley is so tough that 

it is necessary to grind the grain 

before feeding it to domestic animals. The composition 

of barley and its by-products as given in Henry's "Feeds 

and Feeding" is as follows: 



Fig. 58. — A grain of 
2-rowed barley; A, 
dorsal view; B, ven- 
tral view. 




Fig. 59. — High grade bar- 
ley grains with the 
glumes removed to show 
the embryo with its 
collar-like scutellum (s). 
The inner envelopes 
have been removed from 
the upper part of the 
grains. 



350 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



Table 34. 



Average Composition of Barley and its By- 
products 





Water 




Percentage Composition 






Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitro- 
gen- 
Free 
Extract 


Ether 
Extract 


Barley grain 


10.9 
11.9 
12.2 
75.7 

8.2 
10.2 

8.3 


2.4 
2.6 
3.6 
1.0 
3.6 
5.7 
3.8 


12,4 
10.5 
12.3 

5.4 
19.9 
23.2 

3.7 


2.7 

6.5 

7.3 

3.8 

11.0 

10.7 

42.0 


69.8 
66.3 
61.8 
12.5 
51.7 
48.5 
39.5 


1.8 
2 2 


Barley screenings 

Brewers' grain (wet) . . 
Brewers' grain (dry) . . 


2.8 
1.6 
5.6 

1 7 


Barley straw 


2 7 









432. Types of barley. — Most authorities recognize 
two well-marked types of barley. These are: (1) six-rowe(i 
barley (Hordeum sativum hexastichon) and (2) two-rowed 
barley (H. sativum distichon). In the six-rowed type, each 
of the three spikelets borne at a single joint on the rachis 
produces one grain. As each joint produces three grains 
and as these grains are arranged alternately at the various 
joints of the rachis, they are produced in six distinct rows. 
Sometimes a four-rowed barley is produced in that the 
lateral or outside grains of the alternate sets overlap so as 
to form one instead of two rows on each side. Six-rowed 
barley may be four-rowed toward the tip of the spike. In 
the two-rowed type the lateral grains fail to develop, in 
which case the spike is composed of two rather than six 
rows of grains. In this type the joints of the rachis are 
farther apart; hence the spike is longer and less compact 
than in the six-rowed type. The two-rowed barley is a 
spring variety and is the kind that is largely grown in 
Europe for the production of malt, the four- or six-rowed 
barleys being used as food for domestic animals. 

There is a hull-less or naked barley (H. nudum) which 
is also beardless. This type is little grown as it is a poor 



BARLEY 351 

yieldcr. Among the types which retain the hull, there are 
a few beardless varieties. They mature much earlier than 
the bearded sorts, but yield poorly and are extremely ten- 
der, necessitating sowing after Christmas, even in the 
central part of the Gulf states. 

433. Climate. — Barley is successfully cultivated in 
a very wide range of climate. While it is successfully 
produced in cold climates and regions of abundant rains 
it is best adapted to a warm, dry climate. It usually 
matures in less time than oats or spring wheat. 

434. Soil, fertilizers, and rotation. — The root-growth 
of barley is less abundant than that of wheat, oats, or rye. 
It is therefore necessary to sow barley on land that is in a 
high state of fertility. A rich clay loam usually gives best 
results. The limestone soils, when well drained give 
excellent results with barley. The character of fertiliza- 
tion required will be governed largely by the fertility 
needs of the particular soil in question. Well-rotted 
barnyard manure usually gives excellent results. The 
need for commercial fertilizers is the same as for 
wheat. 

Barley should never be grown continuously on the same 
land. In the cotton-belt it most often follows corn. More 
care should be given to the preparation of the seed-bed 
than for oats or rye. In the cotton-belt barley will easily 
occupy a position in the rotation similar to wheat. 

435. Sowing. — In the cotton-belt the greater part 
of the bai-ley crop is sown in October and November. In 
the central part of the Gulf states it may be sown at any 
date between Septeml)er 1st and December 1st. When 
sown broadcast for pasture, 23^2 bushels of seed to the acre 
are advisable. For the production of grain, 134 to 2 
bushels to the acre are usually sown. These amounts are 



352 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



also required when the crop is sown in drills for soiling 
purposes. 
436. Harvesting. — Barley should be harvested before 




Fig. 60. — Loose smut of bailey, showing five 
smutted heads at various stages of development 
and for comparison a sound barley head. 

it is entirely ripe, if discoloration from the rain and dews 
is to be avoided. At this stage the beards will be less 
annoying than when the crop is dead ripe. If the bundles 
are promptly shocked and capped, ripening will proceed 
after harvest, and an excellent quality of grain can be 



BARLEY 353 

secured. Barley is usually harvested with the self- 
binder. 

, 437. Enemies. — Barley probably suffers more from 
the attacks of chinch bugs than any other cereal. This 
may be due to the fact that the chinch-bugs are especially 
fond of this crop. It is thought by some that barley is less 
able to resist their attacks than the other cereals. The 
Hessian fly also attacks barley. 

Barley is affected by black stem-rust and the orange 
leaf-rust. There are also two common smuts of barley. 
These are the covered smut and the loose smut (Fig. 60). 
The treatment for the covered smut is the same as for 
covered or stinking smut of wheat, page 339. The loose 
smut of barley cannot be prevented by the use of foi maUn. 
It can be controlled by the modified hot-water treatment, as 
given for loose smut of wheat, page 338, with the exception 
that barley is treated for 13 minutes at a temperature of 
126° F. instead of 10 minutes at a temperature of 129° F. 
as for wheat. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
RICE (Oryza sativa) 

Rice is an annual grass belonging to the tribe Oryzese. 
To this tribe also belong the two species of wild rice, 
Zizania aquatica and Zizania miliacea. The former 
grows somewhat extensively in certain marshy regions of 
northestern Asia, and under similar conditions in North 
America, particularly in the region of the Great Lakes. 
Its seed was once used extensively as a food by the Indians 
but its tendency to shatter upon ripening has prevented 
its general cultivation. The latter species occurs commonly 
in the bayous of Louisiana where it is sometimes used as 
a hay plant. No use has been made of its seed. The 
genus Oryza to which cultivated rice belongs also con- 
tains a number of species of wild rice that are rather 
generally distributed throughout the tropics of both hemi- 
spheres. 

Rice is a plant of great antiquity, having been known 
to the Chinese 2800 years B. C. and used by them in their 
annual ceremony of sowing five kinds of seed. Rice was 
introduced into Virginia in 1647. This introduction was 
of httle importance. In 1694 the Governor of South Caro- 
lina received a small parcel of rough rice from the captain 
of a trading vessel bound for Liverpool from Madagascar. 
The vessel had been blown out of her course, and had put 
into Charleston for repairs. This small parcel of seed 

354 



RICE 355 

marks the beginning of the rice industry in this coun- 
try. 

438. Structure. — Rice is grown for its grain, which 
is used for human food. The plants vary in height from 
two to five feet, depending upon soil and cultural condi- 
tions. The grain is borne on short branches radiating 
from the upper part of the culm and forming a panicle 
somewhat similar to oats, although more compact on ac- 
count of the short length of the pedicels bearing the spike- 
lets. The spikelets of rice are one-flowered and, unlike 
the other cereals, each flower has six stamens instead of 
three. The outer glumes are very small, consisting only 
of two small scales. The flowing glume envelops the ker- 
nel and is frequently awned. The rice grain, as threshed, 
consists of the kernel or caryopsis inclosed in the flowering 
glume and palea. These outer coverings constitute the 
hull. The rice kernel has a fluted appearance due to four 
depressions which traverse the surface longitudinally. The 
endosperm is quite hard and translucent, and comprises 
the biggest portion of the kernel. The embryo, which 
is not imbedded in the kernel, is rubbed off in the process 
of milling. 

The root-system of rice is quite fibrous. Like the other 
small grains, rice tillers freely under favorable conditions 
sending up several culms from one grain. 

439. Composition. — The rice grain contains a high 
percentage of starch and a low percentage of ash, protein, 
crude fiber, and fat. The composition of rice and its 
products, as determined by McDonnell ^ and reported 
by Duggar,^ is shown on next page: 

1 S. C. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 59. 

^Duggar, J. F., " Southorn Field Crops," p. 219. 



I 



356 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



Table 35. Composition op Rice and its Products 











Nitro- 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 

Fiber 

Per Cent 


gen 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Extract 










Per Cent 


12.79 


0.40 


7.38 


0.33 


78.84 


9.73 


5.50 


12.73 


2.20 


59.40 


10.05 


11.17 


11.35 


16.10 


39.76 


11.11 


14.95 


1.88 


39.11 


33.62 


5.73 


5.89 


7.75 


8.25 


70.13 


6.76 


12.88 


3.00 


38.98 


42.11 



Fat 
Per Cent 



Prepared rice 
Rice polish. . 
Rice bran. . . 
Rice hulls . . . 
Rough rice . . 
Rice straw . . 



0.24 
10.44 
11.57 
0.33 
2.31 
1.27 



440. Varieties. — Owing to the great antiquity of 
rice and the varied conditions of soil, climate and culture 
under which it has been produced, many varieties have 
come into existence. Relatively few of these, however, 
are of great agricultural importance. 

The principal varieties of rice grown in the United 
States are the famous Carolina Gold Seed, the Honduras, 
the Japan, and the Blue Rose. "White" rice, the original 
variety introduced into this country in 1694, was gener- 
ally cultivated in the South Atlantic states during the 
early period of the rice industry in this country but in 
recent years has been superseded by the Gold Seed. 

Carolina Gold Seed rice, so called from the golden- 
yellow color of its husk when ripe, ranks among the best 
rices of the world as regards yield, and size and richness 
of kernel. In reality there are two varieties of Gold Seed 
rice, differing only in size of kernel. 

The Honduras (Fig. 61) and Japan varieties are grown 
largely in Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. Honduras rice 
grows taller than the Japan and produces a stiffer culm 
which renders it less liable to lodge. The kernels are large 
and polish with a desirable pearly luster, for which reason 
it usually commands a higher price than the Japan. On 
the other hand, Japan rice usually yields more than the 



RICE 



357 



Honduras and the grain, being tougher, suffers a smaller 
percentage of loss from broken grains in milling. The 
kernels of Japan rice are short and thick. As the grain 




Fig. 61. — Showing typical heads of five varieties of 
rice together with the unhulled and hulled grains 
(a), and hulled kernels (b). 1, Blue Rose; 2, Hon- 
duras; 3, Waterbuna (Japan); 4, Shinriki (Japan); 
5, Red Rice. 



has a very thin hull it yields a small percentage of bran 
and polish. 

Blue Rose rice (Fig. 62) is the most important variety 
now grown in southeast Texas and southwest Lousiana. It 
was originated by a planter by the name of Wright, of 
Crowley, Louisiana, and has come into use only within the 
last five or six years. It is valued especially as a high- 
yielding variety and possesses excellent milling qualities, 
milling a uniformly high percentage of finished rice. It 



358 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

also has the advantage of not shattering badly at the 
time of harvest. 

441. Upland rice. — For maximum yields and best 
quality, rice must be grown on low, level lands that permit 









-^^' 



Fig. 62. — Blue Rose rice. 



of irrigation. However, there are varieties that can be 
grown on rich uplands without irrigation. Upland rice 
can be grown with reasonable success over a rather large 
area of the cotton-belt east of the Mississippi River. 
However, the yields are usually low and uncertain and 



RICE 359 

the quality inferior to that of irrigated rice. Upland 
rice is usually planted in rather close drills and culti- 
vated. These so-called upland varieties succeed better 
when irrigated. 

442. Climatic adaptations. — Rice is a tropical plant 
but thrives also in semi-tropical regions. It is more re- 
sistant to extreme heat than wheat, being quite similar 
to cotton in its climate range. Roughly speaking, the 
world's rice crop is produced within the area lying between 
latitude 40 degrees north and south of the equator in both 
hemispheres. However, its best development is possible 
only within those regions having a very moist, insular 
chmate. The bulk of the world's rice crop is produced 
throughout the warmer parts of China, Japan, India, and 
the Philippine Islands in Asia, Italy and Spain in Europe, 
the southern United States in North America, Honduras 
in Central America, and Brazil, British Guiana and Peru 
in South America. 

443. Irrigation. — The most economical production 
of high-grade rice is possible only in regions where the crop 
can be flooded with three to six inches of water during 
most of the growing period. Lands selected for irrigated 
rice must, therefore, have slight, if any slope, and must 
be retentive of water. The fields must be laid off in such 
a manner that the entire surface of each contour or sub- 
field will be at practically the same level, otherwise the 
irrigation water will vary in depth in different parts of 
the field, and the crop will ripen ununiformly. Where 
the slope of the land is considerable only small contours 
are possible. In the level prairie sections each contour 
often comprises as much as 20 or 30 acres. 

Irrigation water is supplied from rivers, bayous, or wells. 
Usually large canals are constructed from the water source 



360 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

and extend along one side of the area to be irrigated, or 
in some cases completely encircle it. On each side of the 
main canal, and running parallel with it, banks or levees 
are thrown up which aid in holding the water. The water 
is either pumped or siphoned into these main canals from 
which it is distributed, through headgates or through boxes 
put through the levee known as "trunks," to lateral 
ditches or small canals. This system of laterals conveys 
the water to the highest parts of the various fields. In 
order that the water may be distributed uniformly over 
the entire area, the fields are subdivided into smaller 
areas. 

In the South Atlantic states, the fields are subdivided 
by a system of small ditches or canals, a small levee being 
thrown up on the borders of each. These ditches are usu- 
ally parallel, about 50 feet apart, and are used for convey- 
ing the water both to and from the land. 

In the Gulf states, low levees are thrown up on the con- 
tour lines, usually with a plow, so as to divide the field 
into subareas of uniform level. The water is turned 
into the highest subarea first, from which it flows to the 
subarea having the next highest level and so on until 
the entire area has been flooded. 

Regardless of the system of irrigation followed, it is of 
paramount importance that the levees bordering rivers 
and main canals be sufficiently high to protect the rice 
against freshets or salt water. The injury to rice from 
freshets is due not alone to the volume of water, but also 
to its low temperature. Salt water from the sea often 
ascends rivers to a considerable distance, especially in peri- 
ods of continued drought. The admittance of this salt 
water to rice fields will destroy the crop, although slightly 
brackish water is not destructive. 



RICE 361 



RICE PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES 

The world's crop of cleaned rice amounts to approxi- 
mately one hundred and fifty billion pounds annually. 
Of this amount the United States produces approximately 
seven hundred million pounds. 

444. Rice-growing sections. — Previous to 1880 the 
bulk of the rice crop in the United States was produced 
in South Carolina and Georgia. At present Louisiana, 
Texas, and Arkansas produce more than three-fourths 
of the crop in this country. This shift in rice production 
has been due to the opening up, within recent years, of 
large areas of level prairie land in southwestern Louisiana, 
southeastern Texas, and southeastern Arkansas, together 
with the development of a system of irrigation and culture 
that greatly reduces the cost of production by admitting 
the use of improved seeding and harvesting machinery. 

In addition to these important areas, rice is also pro- 
duced in eastern Louisiana on low alluvial lands once used 
as sugar plantations, and on soils of the same character 
farther up the Mississippi. In southern Louisiana and 
particularly in the eastern sections of Georgia and South 
Carolina considerable quantities of rice are still produced 
on what is termed the "tidal deltas." Lands of this char- 
acter that are used for rice growing are usually located on 
some stream, and have an elevation such that they can be 
flooded from the stream at high tide and drained into it at 
low tide. Many inland marshes occurring in the more 
elevated regions of South Carolina and Georgia, and so 
situated that they can be irrigated from some convenient 
stream, are used for growing rice. 

The areas adapted to upland rice are very extensive in- 
asmuch as this crop can usually be grown on any soil 



362 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

adapted to wheat or cotton provided the climate is favor- 
able. 

445. Drainage. — The fact that rice is a water plant 
has caused most rice-growers to underestimate the value 
of good drainage as an aid in producing both maximum 
yields and a superior quality of grain. Experience has 
amply demonstrated that good drainage is equally as 
essential for rice as for wheat and most other field crops. 
The chief benefits which the rice-grower derives from good 
drainage are: (1) It permits more thorough preparation of 
the seed-bed; (2) earlier planting is possible; (3) a better 
stand is secured; (4) the rapid accumulation of alkali is 
prevented; (5) it permits the rapid removal of the flood 
waters before harvest and thereby allows the soil to be- 
come sufficiently firm to permit the use of improved 
machinery in the harvesting of the crop; (6) a more uni- 
form ripening is secured, and consequently a better quality 
of grain is produced. 

Drainage is most easily effected by means of open 
ditches. Where this system of drainage is employed the 
main ditches should be at least three feet deep. Tile 
drainage, while often practicable, is usually not resorted 
to because of the expense and because the sediment carried 
by the water during freshet seasons often clogs the drains. 

446. Soils, rotations and fertilizers. — The best rice 
soils are silty loams underlain by a semi-impervious sub- 
soil. Very loose-structured soils are not suitable for rice 
as they will not retain the irrigation water. The fertile 
drift prairie soils of Louisiana and Texas are examples of 
excellent rice soils. They are composed of a loamy top 
soil underlain by a rather impervious clay which makes 
them quite retentive of water. 

Rice is seldom grown in a rotation with other crops. The 



RICE 303 

principal reason for this is that it would reduce the area of 
rice grown. Nevertheless continuous rice-culture leads 
ultimately to unprofitable yields. Farmers who have long 
grown rice continuously on the same land are now being 
forced to adopt a rotation to free the land of noxious weeds 
and to add some vegetable matter for the rejuvenation of 
the soil. An excellent practice is to grow, once every three 
years, an intertilled crop like corn together with cowpeas 
seeded at the last cultivation. 

While many kinds of fertilizing materials are employed 
for rice in oriental countries, the land is seldom fertilized 
for this crop in the United States. This is partially due to 
the common impression that the flooding of the rice fields 
restores to the soil as much plant-food as is removed by 
the crop. If the irrigation water carries a large amount 
of sediment this is probably true, but it is not the case 
where flooding is done with pure water. Usually the 
irrigation water carries a large quantity of potash and a 
partial supply of nitrogen, but very little phosphoric acid. 
That the yield of rice may be materially increased by the 
use of a phosphate fertilizer, and the proper hardening of 
the grain aided by the use of a potash fertilizer, are in- 
dicated by experiments in Louisiana. 

While little is known as to the fertilizer requirements of 
rice, certainly in most cases, the permanent productiveness 
of rice lands can be maintained only when at least a part of 
the fertility removed by the crop is replaced. The best 
method of doing this must be determined by each planter 
according to his conditions. 

447. Preparation of the seed-bed. — Soil conditions, 
particularly as regards moisture, arc so variable in the 
rice-belt that no one method of preparation is applicable 
to all cases. In wet culture the land is usually plowed in 



364 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

the spring a short while before planting. In dry culture 
the land is best plowed in the fall or winter. 

The depth of plowing must vary with conditions. If 
good drainage facilities have been provided, deep plowing 
is especially recommended. This should be immediately 
followed by the harrow. After this treatment, the land, 
especially if it is porous, should be gone over with a heavy 
roller. It should be remembered that alkali often accu- 
mulates in the subsoil just below the plowline and in such 
cases a relatively small percentage of the subsoil should be 
plowed up each year until the desired depth has been 
reached. Relatively shallow plowing is preferable on 
poorly drained, persistently wet soils; otherwise the wheels 
of the binder -will sink so deeply into the soil at harvest 
time as to render the use of this implement impossible. 

Maximum yields of rice can be secured only when the 
soil is in such a condition as will permit the preparation 
of a relatively deep, thoroughly pulverized, level seed-bed. 

448. Planting. — Rice planting begins about March 
15th in Louisiana and Texas, and about April 1st in South 
Carolina and Georgia. The planting season continues 
until about June 1st. Usually for best results the crop 
should be planted by April 20th. The Arkansas Station 
recommends that the crop in that state be sown as early 
as possible after danger of frost is over and the ground 
is warm enough to germinate the seed. 

Seeding should be done with a grain drill when possible. 
Broadcast sowing, while still common in many commu- 
nities, should be discontinued, as by this method a uniform 
distribution or germination of the seed is almost impos- 
sible. Uniform germination is especially important from 
the standpoint of securing uniform ripening. One to two 
bushels of seed is the quantity sown to the acre. 



lUCE 365 

The method of planting rice in the South Atlantic 
states differs somewhat from that employed in the Gulf 
states. In discussing rice planting in South Carolina 
Knapp says, ''Just prior to seeding the land is thoroughly 
harrowed, all clods pulverized, and the surface smoothed. 
Trenches 12 inches apart and 2 to 3 inches deep are made 
with 4-inch trenching hoes at right angles to the drains, 
and the seed is dropped in these. This is usually covered, 
but occasionally a planter, to save labor, stirs the seed 
in clayed water, enough clay adhering to the kernels 
to prevent their floating away when the water is ad- 
mitted." 

449. Irrigation practice. — The practices employed 
in the flooding of rice vary in different sections of the rice- 
belt. Irrigation water should not be applied to the crop 
until the plants are 6 to 8 inches high except where the 
application of water is necessary to germinate the seed. 
If a good stand has been secured and the crop is making 
a vigorous growth, thus shading the land completely, 
the water need not stand more than two inches deep. 
In case of a thin stand the water should stand from 4 to 
6 inches deep. To avoid stagnation and the growth of 
certain injurious plants, the water should be constantly 
renewed by permitting a continuous inflow into the high 
part of the field and a continuous outflow from the lowest 
part. 

In Louisiana and Texas, water for irrigating rice is sup- 
plied by rivers, bayous, or deep wells from which it is 
pumped into the main canals. In lifting this water the 
centrifugal type of pump has been found most satisfac- 
tory. The capacity of centrifugal pumps can be calculated 
from the following data by Bond of the United States 
Department of Agriculture: 



366 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



Table 36. Ddty of Centrifugal Pump for Irrigating. 
Lifting Water Less than 35 Feet 



Diameter of 
Discharge 

(Inches) 



Discharge 

per 

Minute 

(Gallons) 



Power for 

EVERY 

Foot of 

Lift 

(Horse p'r) 



Quantity 

Pumped 

PER Day 

(Ft. per 

acre) 



Area Irri- 
gated in 
70 Days 

(Acres) 



4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
15 
18 
20 



433 
1025 
1900 
3000 
4275 
7000 
10000 
13000 



.27 
.56 
.98 
1.54 
2.06 
3.34 
4.62 
5.68 



1.87 
4.53 
8.39 
13.25 
18.89 
30.93 
44.19 
57.45 



60 

158 

294 

464 

661 

1083 

1547 

2011 



When the plants have reached a height of 6 to 8 inches 
the field is flooded with water to a depth of 2 to 6 inches. 
The field is kept flooded until a short while before harvest, 
when the water is withdrawn and the soil allowed to be- 
come firm before the crop is cut. 

In South Carolina the usual practice is to let the water 
on the land for four or five days immediately after planting, 
to germinate the seed. This is spoken of as the "sprout 
water." When the grain is well sprouted the water is with- 
drawn. As soon as the rice has reached the two-leaf stage 
the "stretch water" is put on to a depth of 10 or 12 inches 
at first, afterwards being drawn down to about 6 inches 
where it is held for three or four weeks. The land is then 
drained and the crop hoed. No more water is admitted 
until the plants begin to joint, at which time they are 
again hoed, and the water turned on to remain until about 
eight days before harvest when it is withdrawn. This last 
irrigation is known as the "harvest water"or "laybyflow." 



RICE 367 

450. Harvesting. — Rice should be imrvestcd when 
the grain is in the stiff dough stage, at which time the 
straw is beginning to turn j^ellow. In the prairie districts 
of Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas the crop is commonly 
harvested with the ordinary grain binder. The bundles 
should be carefully shocked and protected by cap bundles, 
so as to reduce exposure to the sun as much as possible. 
Careless shocking results in many sun-cracked grains which 
usually break in milling. 

In the rice-growing districts of the South Atlantic states, 
the use of the grain binder is often impractical on account 
of the bogginess of the soil at harvest time or the small 
size of the fields. In such cases the crop is harvested with 
a sickle, the cut grain being laid upon the stubble to cure. 
After a day's curing it is bound into small bundles, re- 
moved from the wet field and shocked on dry ground. 

451. Thrashing. — The rice crop is now thrashed 
with steam thrashers, except in special cases, when the 
primitive method of "flailing" is employed. While the 
use of the steam thrasher frequently involves the breakage 
of considerable grain, it furnishes the most economical 
means of separating the grain from the straw. Without 
it the present extensive production of rice in this country 
would be impossible. 

If the grain comes from the thrasher in a damp condi- 
tion, it should be spread out on a floor and thoroughly 
dried before it is placed in sacks or barrels. Rice is usually 
sold by the barrel of 162 pounds. A sack is an indefinite 
quantity but usually contains from 150 to 200 pounds. 
A bushel of rough rice, or "paddy," is 45 pounds. A 
pocket of clean rice is 100 pounds. 

452. Yield. — Ordinarily the yield of rice grain ranges 
from 20 to 40 bushels to the acre. By greater care in the 



368 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

selection of seed and the preparation of the seed-bed, the 
average yield can be materially increased. In exceptional 
cases more than 100 bushels have been secured from one 
acre. 

PREPARATION AND USES OF RICE 

453. Cleaned rice. — In order to secure cleaned rice 
the "paddy" or rough rice must be put through a com- 
plicated milling process. Modern rice mills comprise 
a vast network of complicated machinery. In going 
through these mills the rice is subjected to the following 
process in the order given: 

(1) Screening, which removes trash and foreign parti- 
cles. 

(2) Removal of the hull by "rapidly revolving 'milling 
stones' set about two-thirds of the length of a rice grain 
apart." 

(3) Separation of the light chaff and the whole and bro- 
ken kernels by passing the mixed product over horizontal 
screens and blowers. 

(4) Removal of the cuticle or outer coverings of the ker- 
nels. To accomplish this the kernels are put in large 
mortars holding 4 to 6 bushels each and pounded with 
pestles weighing 350 to 400 pounds. 

(5) Separation of the flour and fine chaff removed in 
(4), from the clean rice, by passing the mixture first over 
flour-screens and then through the fine-chaff fan. 

(6) Cooling. — The partially clean rice is passed to the 
cooling bins where it remains for 8 or 9 hours until the 
heat generated in the previous friction process has escaped. 

(7) Removal of the smallest rice and what little flour 
is left by means of brush screens. 

(8) Polishing. — This is the final process in the produc- 



RICE 369 

tion of cleaned rice. It is accomplished by friction between 
the rice kernels and pieces of extremely soft, tanned moose- 
hide or sheep-skin loosely tacked around a revolving double 
cylinder of wood and wire gauze. The object of polishing 
is to give the rice its pearly luster. The polished rice is 
now graded by passing it over separating screens com- 
posed of different sizes of gauze. It is then barreled and 
is ready for the market. 

454. Classification of rice products. — The products 
of the rice in milling are classified commercially, as fol- 
lows: ^ Head rice, consisting of whole grains; straights, 
made up mostly of whole grains but grading slightly 
lower than head rice; screenings, consisting of broken 
rice of which there are several grades; brewers' rice, con- 
sisting of very finely broken rice used in the manufacture 
of beer; rice polish, consisting of the highly nutritious 
flour removed from the kernels in the process of polishing : 
rice bran, consisting of the removed cuticle; rice hulls, 
consisting of the removed flowering glume and palea. 

455. Uses. — Rice serves as the principal food in the 
dietary of more than one-half the population of the world. 
It is usually eaten whole or in soups. Rice is very low in 
protein and consequently should be eaten in connection 
with foods rich in this constituent. In China rice is usu- 
ally eaten in connection with fish or soybeans. 

Rice is also used in the manufacture of starch. The 
lower grades are used in the production of alcoholic 
beverages. 

Rice polish is a valuable stock food being rich in both 
albuminoids and carbohydrates. It is also used in the 
manufactui'e of buttons. 

Rice bran, when fresh, makes an acceptable food for 
^Knapp, S. A., " Rice." Cyclo. Am. Agr., Vol. I, p. 537. 



370 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

all classes of domestic animals. It has a high content of 
fat and is often fed in connection with cotton-seed meal. 
Rice hulls are valued highly as a manure for rice lands. 
They are of practically no value as a stock food. 

ENEMIES OF EICE 

456. Weeds. — Red rice, so called because of the red 
color of the grains, is of more annoyance to rice-growers 
than any other weed. It is a wild variety of rice and will 
cross readily with the improved varieties. Contrary to 
the opinion of many rice-growers, the red rice and the com- 
mon white rice are two distinct varieties and one will not 
produce the other. As the red rice is more hardy and per- 
sistent than the cultivated varieties it often becomes a 
serious pest. In the United States where the demand is 
for white rice, the admixture of red rice grains in white 
rice reduces greatly its market value. 

To keep the field clear of red rice, the grower must ex- 
ercise the greatest caution to secure and plant seed that 
is free from it. If red rice has already been introduced 
into a field it can be eradicated by preventing it from ma- 
turing seed. 

Many other troublesome grasses and weeds invade 
rice fields. Some of the methods recommended for ridding 
rice lands of these pests are: (1) Plowing the field soon 
after harvest, a treatment causing the weed seeds to 
germinate, whereupon they are killed by frost, or in some 
cases mowed and burned. (2) Plowing the field early in 
the spring, thus inducing the weed seeds to germinate. 
They are then killed by cultivation before the rice is 
planted. (3) Planting no rice for a year or two and thus 
allowing the dry land weeds to crowd out the water 
weeds. 



RICE ' 371 

457. Insects. — Only a few insects attack the rice 
plant. The one causing greatest injury is the rice water- 
weevil. While in the larval stage it destroys the roots, 
and later the adults feed on the leaves. The most practical 
means of controlling the rice weevil consists in the tempo- 
rary withdrawal of the water and the drjdng out of the 
land. Alternate flooding and drying, when properly 
carried out, is also recommended. 

458. Fungous diseases. — Rice blast {Piricularia oryzoe 
attacks the node in which the rice head is forming, causing 
the head to fail to fill or to break off. Experts do not agree 
as to the treatment of this disease. Some of the preventive 
measures that have been recommended are : the application 
of lime to the soil, the destruction of stubble and trash 
by burning over the fields and the use of early maturing 
varieties. 

Rice smut (Tilletia horrida) which fills the kernels with 
a mass of black spores, is sometimes sufficiently prevalent 
to do serious damage. For its control, either the hot- 
water treatment, page 339, or the formaUn treatment, 
page 339, is recommended. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

THE SORGHUMS {Andropogon sorghum) 

In its agricultural or restricted sense the term "sor- 
ghum" includes only the saccharine varieties. In this 
chapter the term will be used in its broad or botanical 
sense which includes (a) . the saccharine sorghums, (b) 
the non-saccharine sorghums, commonly known as grain- 
sorghums, (c) the broom-corns, and (d) the grass sorghums, 
most important of which are Sudan-grass, Johnson-grass, 
and Tunis-grass. As the members of the latter group are 
grown for forage only they will not be treated in this text. 

459. Biological origin. — Authorities have generally 
agreed that the cultivated sorghums were originally de- 
rived from the well-known wild species, Androyogon hale- 
pensis, commonly known in the United States as Johnson- 
grass. However, it has been recently pointed out that the 
wild forms of sorghum easily separate into two groups.^ 
One group includes the perennials with root-stocks like 
the various varieties of Johnson-grass; the other group 
includes annuals without root-stocks, such as Sudan-grass 
and Tunis-grass. These wild annual forms cross readily 
with the cultivated sorghums, whereas the perennial forms 
and the cultivated sorghums are crossed with considerable 
difficulty. It would therefore seem that the original 
prototype of our cultivated sorghums is to be found 
among the wild annual forms of Andropogon sorghum, 
' Piper, C. v., "Forage Plants and Their Culture," p. 260. 
372 



THE SORGHUMS 373 

referred to above. This view has been expressed by 
Piper in his book on Forage Plants. 

460. Geographical origin. — The cultivated sorghums 
originated in the tropics of the Old World. An independent 
origin in tropical Africa and in India is held by Ball.^ 
Hackel," as a result of his studies, concludes that the culti- 
vated sorghums originated in Africa. As the wild annual 
forms of sorghum are confined largely to Africa, the 
African origin of the cultivated forms seems the most 
likely. 

461. Botanical classification. — Botanically the sor- 
ghums are classed as follows: Order — Gramineae; tribe — ■ 
Andropogonese; genus — Andropogon; species — Sorghum 
var. vulgare. 

As a key to the principal groups of sorghum, the follow- 
ing classification has been proposed by Ball:^ 

I. Pith juicy. 

A. Juice abundant and very sweet. 

1. Internodes elongated; sheaths scarcely overlapping; 
leaves 12-15 (except in Amber varieties); spikelets 
elliptic-oval to obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide; seeds 
reddish brown. I. Sorgo. 

B. Juice scanty, slightly sweet to subacid. 

1. Internodes short; sheaths strongly overlapping; leaves 

12-15; peduncles erect; panicles cyhndrical; spikelets 
obovate, 3-4 mm. wide; lemmas a^vnless. II. Kafir. 

2. Internodes medium; sheaths scarcely overlapping; leaves 

8-11; peduncles mostly inclined, often recurved; panicles 
ovate; spikelets broadly obovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide; 
lemmas a\vned. VII. Milo. 

1 Ball, Carleton R., U. S. Dep't of Agr. Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. 175, 
pp. 9-10. 

2 Hackel, Edward, "The True Grasses," p. 59. 

^ Ball, Carleton R., U. S. Dep't Agr. Bur. Plant Ind., Bui. 175, 
p. 8. 



374 ' FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

II. Pith dry. 

A. Panicle lax, 2.5-7 dm. long; peduncles erect; spikelets elliptic- 

oval or obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide; lemmas awned. 

1. Panicle 4-7 dm. long; rachis less than one-fifth as long as 

the panicle, 
a. Panicle umbeUiform, the branches greatly elongated, 
the tips drooping; seeds reddish, included. 

III. Broom-corn. 

2. Panicle 2.5-4 dm. long; rachis more than two-thirds as long 

as the panicle. 

a. Panicle conical, the branches strongly drooping; glumes 

at maturity spreading and involute; seeds white or 
somewhat buff. IV. Shallu. 

b. Panicle oval or obovate, the branches spreading; 

glumes at maturity appressed, not involute; seeds 
white, brown, or reddish. V. Kowliang. 

B. Panicle compact, 1-2.5 dm. long; peduncles erect or recurved; 

rachis more than two-thirds as long as the panicle. 

1. Spikelets elliptic-oval or obovate, 2.5-3.5 mm. wide; 

lemmas awned. V. Kowliang. 

2. Spikelets broadly obovate, 4.5-6 mm. wide. 

a. Glumes gray or greenish, not wi'inkled; densely pubes- 

cent; lemmas awned or awnless; seeds strongly 
flattened. VI. Durra. 

b. Glumes deep brown or black, transversely wrinkled; 

thinly pubescent; lemmas awned; seeds slightly 
flattened. VII. Milo. 

The above classification does not include the grass sor- 
ghums. Of the seven groups included in the above clas- 
sification, sorgo has been developed primarily for its sugar 
which is largely used in the form of sirup; kafir, milo, 
shallu, kowliang, and durra have been developed pri- 
marily as grain crops; and broom-corn for the "brush" 
furnished by the seed-bearing branches of the panicle. 

462. Root-system. — Careful studies of the root- 
systems of sorghum and corn growing under the same con- 



THE SORGHUMS 375 

ditions show that both sweet and grain-sorghums produce 
a shallower root-system than corn. As a result of inves- 
tigations at the Kansas Station, Ten Eyck found the roots 
of kafir and Folger sorgo largely confined to the upper 18 
inches of soil; while corn under the same conditions com- 
pletely occupied the upper 30 inches of soil. The deepest 
roots of kafir penetrated to a depth of three feet while 
corn sent its deepest roots four feet. The roots of kafir 
were especially fine and fibrous and completely filled the 
upper 18 inches of soil. While the roots of the sweet 
sorghmn were somewhat less fine and hardly so abundant 
in the upper soil strata as the kafir roots, they were said 
to resemble the kafir more than the corn roots. ^ 

463. Tillers and branches. — A small bud is produced 
at every node of the sorghum culm except the uppermost 
node which bears the peduncle and main seed-head. 
Tillers result from the growth of those buds on the closely 
crowded lower nodes at the surface of the soil. The num- 
ber of these lower buds that develop into tillers will depend 
upon the habit of the variety or the abundance of food 
and moisture. From one to ten is the usual variation. 
The tillers are usually shorter and later in maturing than 
the main stalk. As a rule they produce seed. 

In long seasons of abundant moisture the buds borne at 
the above-ground nodes may develop into branches, by 
forcing their way out at the top of the leaf-sheaths or by 
spUtting the back of the sheaths. Usually the upper- 
most bud develops first followed in succession by those 
at the lower nodes. The number of buds that thus de- 
velop into branches will depend upon the length of the 
growing season and the moisture supply. Each branch is 
a miniature stalk bearing leaves and a seed-head. 
1 Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 127, pp. 207-208. 



376 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

464. Drought resistance, — The peculiar adaptation 
of the sorghums, particularly the grain-sorghums, to 
agriculture in ?emi-arid regions, is well known. As to 
those qualities or factors that enable the sorghums to 
successfully resist dry, hot weather, our knowledge is less 
clear. These qualities cannot be attributed to the exten- 
siveness or depth of the root-system as we have already 
seen that the root-system of sorghum is less extensive than 
corn, a crop not particularly adapted to dry" regions. 
Observations also indicate that as much water is required 
to produce a pound of dry matter in sorghum as in corn. 
It would therefore seem that the rather prevalent belief 
in the exceptionally low water requirement of sorghum is 
not tenable. The most probable explanation of the pecul- 
iar adaptability of the sorghums to dry, hot regions is to be 
found (1) in the high degree of resistance of the sorghum 
plant to injury from dry, hot weather and (2) the ability of 
the sorghum plant to cease growing and become prac- 
tically dormant during periods of severe drought, growth 
being renewed without any apparent injury with the 
coming of rain. 

465. Effects on the soil. — The sorghums, particu- 
larly the saccharine varieties, are generally considered to be 
hard on the land. The reasons for this are not clear. 
Among the explanations so far advanced the following 
seem to be the most reasonable: (1) The sorghums seem 
to concentrate their feeding roots in the upper layers of 
soil to a greater degree than most other crops, which 
peculiarity probably results in exhausting the surface soil 
of its available fertility. (2) Sorghum stubble often breaks 
up cloddy on account of the fact that the soil is held to- 
gether by the matted roots. (3) The slowness with which 
sorghum stubble decays renders its immediate effects less 



THE SORGHUMS 377 

apparent than that produced by other forms of vegetable 
matter. 

The evil effects of sorghum on the land are usually only 
temporary, being most marked on the first crop following 
and completely disappearing in two or three years. 

466. Fertilization and crossing. — The sorghums are 
capable of both self-pollination and cross-pollination. 
They are normally self-pollinated and are not injured by 
this process as is corn. 

As the hght pollen of sorghums is easily carried by the 
wind, different varieties or types, when planted close to- 
gether are subject to more or less crossing. Ball ^ found 
that when different varieties were planted in adjacent rows 
and flowered at the same time as high as 50 per cent of the 
seed produced on the leeward row was cross-fertilized. It 
has been conclusively demonstrated that all of the different 
types of sorghum, such as saccharine and non-saccharine 
sorghums, and the broom-corns will intercross readily if 
grown in close proximity to each other. 

467. Breeding (Figs. 63, 64). — Sorghum lends itself 
easily to improvement by selection. The selection should 
be made before the plants flower, and the selected plants 
should be prevented from becoming contaminated by 
bagging the heads before the stigmas are exposed. The 
bags should be removed as soon as the seeds have set to 
prevent the heads from molding. 

The producing power of the selected plants is deter- 
mined by the head-to-row method. This method is carried 
out in the same manner as the ear-to-row test of corn, 
page 196, except that in the sorghum breeding-plot no pre- 
cautions are taken to prevent inljreeding. On the other 
hand, the best heads in the most productive rows are 
1 Ball, Carleton R., Am. Breeders' Assoc, Vol. VI, p. 193. 



378 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



bagged each year and used for planting the breeding-plot 
of the next year. 

The quahties selected for in improving the saccharine 




Fig. 03. — Two heads of Milo showing desirable form (mi left) and unde- 
sirable form (on right). 

sorghums are juiciness and high sugar content, yield, 
disease-resistance, drought-resistance, and erectness. 

In the improvement of the grain-sorghums the prin- 
cipal considerations should be (1) increased grain produc- 
tion; (2) increased drought-resistance; (3) increased earli- 
ness; (4) dwarf stature; (5) desirable forms of heads; 
(6) heads fully exserted from the upper leaf-sheath, or boot; 



THE SORGHUMS 



379 



(7) freedom from suckers and branches; (8) freedom from 
pendent heads; and (9) disease-resistance. 

The dwarf stature is usually desirable in the grain- 
sorghums because it decreases the water requirement of 
the crop to a unit of grain produced. The tendency to 
sucker is generally looked upon as an undesirable quahty 
in the grain-sorghums. The suckers are usually shorter 
and later maturing than the main stalks and less produc- 




FiG. 64. — Three plants of BlackhuU Kafir, 5.5 feet high, selected for 
low stature and high j-ielding power. 

tive of grain. Best results are secured when sufficient seed 
is planted to furnish the desired number of stalks without 
depending on suckers. Branches are absolutely worthless 
and should be eliminated. Pendent heads make it difficult 
to harvest the crop by machinery. All of these characters 
are to an extent hereditary and can be more or less con- 
trolled by selection. Sorghums are crossed artificially 
with little difficulty. To do this the flowers must be 
emasculated before the anthers open. 



380 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

468. Sorghum poisoning. — Many instances are on 
record of the poisoning of cattle from feeding on the grow- 
ing plants of both saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums. 
This injury is due to the formation of prussic acid in the 
plants, particularly in the leaves, under certain conditions. 
The poison is produced by the action of an enzyme on one 
or more of the normally occurring glucosides in the plant. 
The amount of prussic acid in sorghum usually decreases 
as the plant matures. The condition that favors the devel- 
opment of prussic acid in sorghum is a stunted growth of 
the plants produced by hot, dry weather. It is also claimed 
that young plants of vigorous growth contain a higher 
content of prussic acid than plants reaching maturity. 
Cutting poisonous sorghum and allowing it to wilt will 
eliminate the poisonous property. Sorghum that has been 
stunted by hot, dry weather should be pastured with great 
caution. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
THE SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 

This type of sorghum, commonly designated as "sweet 
sorghum" is characterized by the production of stems 
having a juicy pith that is high in sugar, and a relatively 
small seed-crop as compared with the grain-sorghums. 
The saccharine sorghums were introduced into the United 
States from China and Natal. In 1853 a variety known 
as "sorgo" or "Chinese sorgo" was brought to this coun- 
try from China by way of France. This early Chinese 
sorgo is the variety from which our well-known and popu- 
lar Amber sorghum has been derived. Several of our other 
commonly grown varieties of sweet sorghum, including 
Orange, Sumac and Gooseneck, have been derived from 
a collection of Natal varieties, introduced into Europe in 
1854 and thence into the United States in 1857. From 
the time of their introduction in this country up until 
1880 the sweet sorghums were grown almost entirely as 
a sirup crop. This continues as the principal use of these 
sorghums in the central and southern states east of the 
Mississippi River. Since 1880 the sweet sorghums have 
been grown in the region west of the Missouri River and 
southward in the Great Plains principally as a forage 
crop. 

469. Classification of saccharine sorghums. — The 
classification here given has been adopted from Ball by 
Montgomery.^ 

1 Montgomery, E. G., "The Com Crops," p. 296. 
381 



382 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

A. Peduncle and panicle erect. 

1. Panicle loose, open, branches spreading to horizontal or droop- 

ing; rachis two-thirds as long to equaUng the panicle. 

Empty glumes black, hairy I. Amber 

Empty glumes black, smooth II. Minn. Amber 

Empty glumes red III. Red Amber 

Empty glumes light brown IV. Honey 

Rachis less than one-haK the length of the 
panicle: — 

Panicle light, drooping branches, seeds 

orange to red V. ColUer 

Panicle heavy, seeds orange VI. Planter's 

Friend 

2. Panicle close, compact. 

Empty glumes equal to seeds, seed red. VII. Orange 
Empty glumes half as long as the small 

seeds, seeds dark red VIII. Sumac 

Empty glumes narrow IX. Sapling 

B. Peduncle recurved (goosenecked) or sometimes 

erect. 

Panicle black, glumes awned X. Gooseneck 

A brief description of the varieties that are most impor- 
tant in the cotton-belt is given below: 

470. Sumac sorghum, often known as "Redtop," 
produces a very compact, deep red seed-head somewhat 
similar to Sumac, which character gives it its name. Under 
average conditions the plants grow 7 to 8 feet high and are 
rather stout and erect. Sumac sorghum matures in from 
105 to 120 days. Owing to its high value for sirup, forage, 
and silage it is especially popular in the South, particu- 
larly throughout the Piedmont region and in Oklahoma 
and Texas. It is said to be the most uniform of the sweet 
sorghum varieties. 

471. Orange sorghum (Fig. 65) usually does not grow 
quite as tall as Sumac, and produces rather stout erect 
stalks, the seed-heads of which are rather long, of medium 



THE SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 



383 



compactness, and present an orange tinge due to the par- 
tially exserted orange colored seeds. It matures in about 
the same length of time as Sumac sorghum. Orange sor- 
ghum is an excellent va- 
riety for sirup production, 
and being rather leafy, is 
also a good variety for 
forage. 

472. Amber sorghum is 
probably the most largely 
grown variety of sweet 
sorghum in the United 
States. It is very early, 
maturing usually in less 
than 100 days, and for this 
reason has practically 
crowded all other varieties 
out of the section north 
of Kansas and the Ohio 
River, which comprises 
the northern limit of the 
sorghum-belt. It is very 
popular in Kansas, Okla- 
homa and Texas as a 
forage crop. Amber sor- 
ghum is not a tall growing 
variety, usually ranging in 
height from 5 to 7 feet. The seed-head is usually rather 
loose and black in color. A selection known as Red 
Amber differs from the parent form only in having red 
seed-heads. 

473. Gooseneck sorghum is often erroneously called 
"Texas Seeded Ribbon Cane." The use of the name 




Fig. 65. — A head of Orange 
sorghum. 



384 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

"Seeded Ribbon Cane" has caused much confusion among 
farmers inasmuch as the true sugar-cane (Saccharum 
officinarum) is also commonly known as "Ribbon Cane." 
The seed of "Texas Seeded Ribbon Cane" has been 
widely sold in the past, often with the claim that it was a 
form of true sugar cane that both produced seed and could 
be grown from the seed. Investigation has shown this 
plant to be the old familiar Gooseneck sorgo. It is in no 
sense a variety of Ribbon Cane and the application of this 
name to it should be discontinued. Owing to the popu- 
larity of the so-called Texas Seeded Ribbon Cane, seed 
of other varieties of sweet sorghum have been substituted 
for it and sold as " Straightneck Seeded Ribbon Cane." 
Gooseneck sorghum is the largest and one of the latest 
varieties of sweet sorghum. The plants grow from 9 to 
12 feet tall with from 25 to 50 per cent of the peduncles 
recurved, which character gives it its name. The stalks 
are from one to two inches in diameter at the base and are 
rich in sugar; and hence a very valuable variety for sirup. 

474. Honey sorghum, sometimes incorrectly called 
"Japanese Seeded Cane" was found growing in Texas 
in 1904. It produces tall stems that are very juicy and 
sweeter than any other variety known. The stems are 
very tender and are excellent for sirup making. Honey 
sorghum is a very late variety requiring from 125 to 140 
days to mature. 

475. Climatic adaptations. — With few exceptions 
the climatic adaptations of the saccharine sorghums are 
similar to those of corn. They are less injured by intense 
heat or drought than corn but they are easily susceptible 
to injury both in the spring and fall by even light frosts. 
In regions of cool summers they are of little value. A 
warm summer climate is absolutely essential. 



THE SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 385 

476. Soils and fertilizers. — Sweet sorghum may be 
successfully grown on soils of almost any character provided 
they are reasonably fertile and well-drained. These crops 
are strong feeders and excellent drought resisters, which 
qualities often cause them to be planted on the poorest 
land of the farm. The fertile soils are often avoided for 
sorghums grown for forage because the stems are finer on 
the less productive soils. The tendency of sorghums to 
produce coarse stems when planted on rich soils can be 
overcome by sowing the crop thicker. For sirup produc- 
tion a rather fertile, medium textured loam is preferred. 

While it is customary to grow the sorghums without 
fertilizer, they are surface feeders and will respond to 
judicious fertilization as readily as will corn. The charac- 
ter, amount and method of application of fertilizer for sor- 
ghum are the same as for corn. 

477. Preparation of the land. — The sweet sorghums 
require no special preparation of the soil other than that 
recommended for corn. As the young plants grow very 
slowly, the seed-bed should be plowed early and harrowed 
frequently before seeding in order to kill any weeds that 
may have started. 

478. Time, rate, and method of planting. — The sweet 
sorghums are* usually planted from two to four weeks after 
the earliest corn. In the cotton-belt the greater part of 
the crop for sirup is planted in May. For forage, sorghum 
may be planted in the central portion of the Gulf states 
at any time from April 1st to July 1st, although reduced 
yields are usually secured from the very late plantings. 

When grown for sirup, the rows should be 33^ feet apart 
and the plants from 4 to 8 inches apart in the row. Plant- 
ing is best done with an ordinary corn or cotton planter 
fitted with special sorghum plates. Sometimes the corn- 



386 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



planting plates are modified for planting sorghum by fill- 
ing the holes with lead and boring them out to the proper 
size. In all except the semi-arid region of the cotton-belt 
surface planting is recommended. The two-row corn 
planter is largely used for this purpose. In the drier 
sections of Texas and Oklahoma the seed is often planted 
in a lister furrow. 

479. Cultivation. — The cultivation of sorghum is 
much the same as for corn. As a rule the weeder or harrow 
should be used until the plants are large enough to permit 
the use of any of the common types of cultivators. At 
least one light harrowing should be given before the plants 
are up and another when they are large enough to escape 
injury. Tillage by separate rows should continue until 
the plants have almost reached the heading stage. 

480. Harvesting. — When grown for sirup, sorghum 
should be harvested when the seed have reached the hard 
dough stage. The crop increases rapidly in total weight un- 
til maturity. The sugar content also increases rapidly from 
the time the panicles appear until maturity as shown below : 

Table 37. Sugar Content of Sorghum at Different Stages 
OF Growth ' 



Stage op Cutting 


Sucrose 
(Per Cent) 


Invert Sugar 
(Per Cent) 


Panicles just appearing 

Panicles entirely out 

Flowers all out 


1.76 
3.51 
5.13 
7.38 
8.95 
10.66 
11.69 


4.29 
4.50 
4 15 


Seed in milk 

Seed doughy, becoming dry. . 

Seed dry, easily split 

Seed hard 


3.86 
3.19 
2.35 
1 81 







1 U. S. Dep't of Agr. Farmers' Bui., 477, p. 12 (average of 2740 
analyses). 



THE SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 387 

When grown for silage, the sweet sorghums should 
be cut when the seeds are going out of the soft dough stage. 
If the seeds are fully ripe many of them will pass through 
the animal undigested. Sorghum for hay should be har- 
vested when fully headed. 

When the crop is utilized for sirup, the leaves are usu- 
ally stripped while the plants are standing. Whatever 
the method followed it is important that the canes be 
stripped before pressing; otherwise the yield of juice is 
decreased and the percentage of impurities in the juice 
is increased. The crop is cut by hand or with a corn 
harvester. If the weather is warm the cut cane should be 
pressed within one or two days after cutting to prevent 
the stalks from fermenting. Frosted sorghum should be 
cut at once and put in large shocks. This should be done 
without stripping or topping the plants if the shocks are 
to stand for several days. 

481. Manufacturing the sirup. — This process com- 
prises three important steps: (1) The extraction of the 
juice; (2) clarification of the juice, and (3) evaporation 
of the juice. 

The juice is extracted by running the canes through 
heavy roller mills run by horse power or by gasoline or 
steam engines. From 30 to 60 per cent of the juice is ex- 
tracted, the amount depending on the type of mill used. 
The three-roller type ordinarily in use extracts about 60 
per cent of the juice from the stalks. 

The raw juice contains from 20 to 30 per cent of impuri- 
ties that are removed by clarification. The means of 
accomplishing this are as follows: (1) Allowing the juice 
to stand for some time to permit the impurities to settle 
to the bottom. The juice is carefully drawn off leaving 
the sediment behind. (2) Heating the juice to coagulate 



388 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

certain impurities and cause them to rise to the top, 
whence they are skimmed off. (3) Adding 10 pounds of 
dry, fine yellow clay to every 50 gallons of juice. The 
particles of clay, on settling to the bottom carry with them 
much of the suspended impurities. (4) Filtering the juice. 
(5) The addition of a small amount of milk, which coagu- 
lates and rises to the surface when the juice is heated 
bringing with it a certain class of impurities. (5) When 
the juice is somewhat acid, a small amount of lime is 
added to the heated juice. 

Skimming, settling and claying are the means most 
commonly used for clarifying the juice. 

The juice is finally evaporated in large shallow pans. 
These pans are divided off into compartments and the 
boiling juice is made to flow from one compartment to 
another at such a rate as to concentrate it into sirup by 
the time the outflow is reached. 

482. Yield. — Soils of average fertility should produce 
from 8 to 10 tons of green sorghum. The amount of juice 
extracted from a ton of cane will vary with the kind of mill 
used and the quality of the cane. With the better grade 
of mills from 800 to 1200 pounds of juice should be secured 
from a ton of canes. This should yield from 15 to 30 
gallons of sirup. The sugar content of cane juice varies 
from 8 to 15 per cent. 

483. Enemies. — Two smuts affect the sweet sor- 
ghums, viz., the grain smut (Phacelotheca diplospora) and 
the whole-head smut (P. reiliana). The damage from 
these diseases is usually light. Both can be partially 
checked by crop rotation and care in selecting planting 
seed. The grain smut can be controlled by the hot-water 
treatment or the formalin treatment as outlined for oat 
smut, page 339. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 

The term "non-saccharine" as applied to the group of 
sorghums discussed in this chapter is somewhat indefinite 
as some of the kafirs have a fairly sweet juice and are 
doubtless capable of being developed into saccharine 
varieties. The non-saccharine sorghums, with the excep- 
tion of broom-corn are usually called grain-sorghums, 
because they are more valuable for grain than for forage. 
Their growth in the United States on a commercial basis 
is quite recent, although some of the durras were intro- 
duced into California in 1874, kafir being introduced in 
1876. 

484. The grain-sorghum belt. — Owing to the re- 
markable drouth resistance of the grain-sorghums and 
their ability to withstand dry, hot winds they are most 
completely at home in the United States in that part of 
the Great Plains region comprising western Texas, the 
western third of Oklahoma, the western half of Kansas 
and all of Colorado and New Mexico lying east of the 
mountains. The most distinctive feature of this region 
is its climate. The annual rainfall averages about 20 
inches, varying from 15 to 25 inches, most of which comes 
from April to September, inclusive. The summers are 
hot, and over much of the area steady winds prevail 
throughout the growing season making evaporation es- 
pecially rapid. The conditions are often such as to destroy 
all forms of tender vegetation. Throughout this area 

389 



390 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

the grain-sorghums are extensively grown as staple crops 
and are gradually becoming the basis of a great cattle- 
feeding industry. 

485. Groups of non-saccharine sorghums. — The non- 
saccharine sorghums in the United States are usually 
divided into five groups as follows: Kafir, durra, shallu, 
kowliang, and the broom-corns. 

486. Kafir. — The kafirs came originally from Natal 
and the east central coast region of Africa. The seed of 
two varieties of kafir were exhibited by the Natal Govern- 
ment at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 
1876. From these small quantities of seed the kafir in- 
dustry in this country has sprung. 

The kafir group in the United States includes three 
varieties. These are White Kafir, BlackhuU Kafir, and 
Red Kafir (Fig. 66) . These varieties differ principally in 
the color of the seed and hulls. In all varieties the heads 
are erect. Red Kafir usually grows 6 to 7 feet high, while 
the white and black hull varieties seldom grow higher than 
6 feet. Red Kafir is an excellent yielder of both fodder and 
grain but the seed-coat has an astringent taste which ren- 
ders it somewhat less desirable as a stock food than the 
grain of White or BlackhuU Kafir. White Kafir is Uttle 
grown in the United States at the present time because it 
does not mature well, and the heads, not being well ex- 
serted from the leaf-sheath, rot easily in damp weather. 
BlackhuU Kafir is by far the most popular variety, fur- 
nishing about nine-tenths of the total kafir crop in this 
country. Nearly all of the remaining tenth is Red Kafir. 

487. Durra (Fig. 67) — The three important varieties 
of this group are Yellow milo. Brown durra and White 
durra. The last named variety is often called "Jerusalem 
corn, " "Rice corn" or " Egyptian corn." Another variety 



THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 391 




Fig. 66. — Heads of four varieties of kafir: 1, White Kafir; 2, Guinea 
Kafir (Guinea corn of the West Indies); 3, BlackhuU Kafir; 4, Red 
Kafir. 



392 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



of durra known as Feterita, and related to milo and White 
durra, has recently been introduced into the United States 
from the British Egyptian Sudan, in Africa. 

The durras are characterized by the production of large, 
somewhat flattened seeds (Fig. 68), and with the exception 

of Feterita, a high 
percentage of re- 
curved or goose- 
necked peduncles. 
As the grain of White 
durra shatters badly 
and is frequently in- 
jured by insects and 
disease, it is little 
grown in this coun- 
try. Brown durra 
is grown rather ex- 
tensively in southern 
California and to a 
less extent in Texas. 
In many respects it 
resembles rriilo. 

Yellow milo is a 
very popular grain- 
sorghum, owing to the fact that it matures about two weeks 
earlier than kafir and produces a large, brittle grain that is 
easily masticated by stock. It is extensively grown in the 
Pan-handle of Texas and western Oklahoma. Milo is httle 
grown for hay, silage, or soiling as the stalks are not leafy 
and the crop is usually quite mature when harvested. 
It is grown almost exclusively as a grain and fodder crop. 
Yellow milo matures in 90 to 100 days. It can be grown 
further north and at higher altitudes than kafir. Dwarf 





Fig. 67. — Milo heads ; one pendent, one erect. 



THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 



393 



milo is a low growing strain of Yellow milo which has been 
developed in regions of scanty rainfall. Owing to its ex- 
treme drought resistance and excellent grain producing 
qualities Dwarf milo is now one of the most popular grain- 
sorghums. There is also a White milo which is closely 
related to Yellow milo. It differs from Yellow milo mainly 
in the appearance of the glumes and seed, both of which 
are white. White milo is meeting with much favor in the 
grain-sorghum belt. 

Feterita is a durra having erect heads, and large, soft, 



»^0 O*" ~> /»^ 

-p f^ (^ r, ,*i 

• *©.» r^^ 







Fig. 68. — Milo seeds, hulled (on left) and un- 
hulled (on right) and a small branch of head. 

white grains. It grows from 4 to 7 feet high. Since its 
introduction into' the United States extravagant claims 
have been made for it by uninformed persons. Experiments 
by the office of Forage Crop Investigations of the United 
States Department of Agriculture "show it to be a good 
grain and forage crop, but not in any way meriting ex- 
traordinary praise. It has proved about equal to milo 
in yield." 

488. Shallu (Fig. 69) . — This is a peculiar sorghum 
characterized by slender stems and large loose panicles 
with drooping branches. The spikelets are somewhat oval 
in shape and of yellowish color. At maturity the two 



394 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

empty glumes spread wide apart and become decidedly 
inrolled or involute, thus completely exposing the hard, 




Fig. 69. — Two heads of shallu. 

flattened, white or pearly seed. The plants grow from 
5 to 7 feet tall. 

Shallu was introduced into the United States from India 
in 1890 by the Louisiana Experiment Station, and later 
discarded. It is now found growing at scattered points 



THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 395 

throughout the grain-sorghum belt under such misleading 
names as "Egyptian wheat," "Cahfornia wheat," "Mexi- 
can wheat," and others. The seed of this crop has been 
widely advertised by uninformed seed growers and sold at 
exorbitant prices. Experiments conducted by the Office 
of Forage Crop Investigation of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture indicate that shallu is inferior to kafir 
and milo for grain production and less valuable for forage 
than the sorgos. 

489. Kowliang. — This distinct group of grain-produc- 
ing sorghums was recently introduced into the United 
States fi'om northeast China and the adjacent territory 
of Manchuria by the United States Department of Agri- 
culture to fill the demand for an early ripening grain- 
sorghum. Tests have shown the ko whangs to be very good 
grain producers but of little value for forage. In the greater 
portion of the grain-sorghum belt they are less valuable 
than milo or kafir. By careful selection it is probable 
that the kowliangs can be made the basis of important 
grain crops for the northern part of the Great Plains 
where early maturing varieties are so essential. 

490. Broom-com (Fig. 70). — This is a non-saccharine 
sorghum of practically no value for forage, although the 
matured seed is valuable as a poultry and stock food. The 
crop is grown almost entirely for the elongated branches 
of the seed-head which are used in the manufacture of 
brooms. 

The origin of broom-corn is not known. It had its first 
general culture in Italy. As sorghums have been culti- 
vated in Italy for more than eighteen centuries, it has 
been suggested that broom-corn has probably been de- 
rived by selection from a variety of sweet sorghum having 
long branches and a shortened rachis. 



396 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 




The panicle of broom-corn is borne on an erect peduncle 
and consists of a collection of slender seed-bearing branches 

from 10 to 28 inches 
long, attached to a 
shortened rachis of 
1 to 2 inches in 
length. Broom-corn 
resembles shallu and 
kowliang more than 
other sorghums. 
The states of II- 
^ ^„ _, r x -.u u £r linois, Kansas, Mis- 

FiG. 70. — Broom-corn fruit with chaff: r, 

two staminate spikelets; g\ lower empty SOUri, Nebraska, and 

glume; g'-, upper empty glume; g^, glume ^i , , , 

of rudimentary flower; fif/, flowering glume UKianoma prOQUCe 

with awn; p, palet; c, caryopsis. ^^iq bulk of the 

broom-corn crop in this country. In order to produce a 
"brush" of high quality, dry, clear weather is essential 
during the maturing ' and harvesting periods. Rain at 
this time decreases the value of the crop by dis- 
coloring the brush. For this reason broom-corn is best 
adapted to the central Mississippi valley and the plains 
of Kansas and Oklahoma and the Panhandle region of 
Texas. 

There are two distinct types of broom-corn, differing 
mainly as regards height of plant and the length and 
strength of the brush. Standard broom-corn grows 10 
to 15 feet high with a strong brush 20 to 30 inches long. 
Dwarf broom-corn grows from 4 to 6 feet tall with a brush 
12 to 24 inches long. Standard broom-corn is largely 
produced in central Illinois and is used for the manufacture 
of large brooms. The dwarf type is largely produced in 
Kansas, Oklahoma, and Nebraska, and is used in the pro- 
duction of whisk and other small brooms. 



THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 397 

491. Culture of the grain-sorghums. — The seed-bed 
for the grain-sorghums is prepared much as for corn. The 
land is plowed in either fall or spring, fall plowing usually 
being preferable. In sections subject to "soil blowing" 
during the winter months, the fall-plowed land should 
be left in a rough condition until early spring at which 
time it should be harrowed and thoroughly prepared for 
seeding. 

492. Time, rate, and method of seeding. — The grain- 
sorghums are hot weather crops and should be planted 
from two to four weeks after the usual date of planting 
corn. In northwest Texas, seeding from April 15 to May 
1st usually gives the most satisfactory yields of both grain 
and forage, while seeding as late as the middle of June 
is generally undesirable. 

Grain-sorghums are usually planted in rows 3 to 3J^ 
feet apart, with the plants from 3 to 10 inches apart in 
the row. As a rule the durras are left a little thicker in 
the row than the kafirs. Common distances for durras 
are from 4 to 8 inches in the row and for kafirs, 6 to 10 
inches. As a result of a three years' test at Chillicothe, 
Texas, the most satisfactory yields of both grain and 
forage were secured from milo and kafir when planted 
in rows 3 feet apart and with stalks every 4 inches in the 
row.^ 

Ordinary corn planting machinery is generally used for 
planting these crops, the only change necessary being the 
use of special sorghum plates. In regions of very low 
rainfall listing generally gives better results than surface 
planting. The latter method is strongly recommended, 
however, for all regions except those of very scanty rain- 
fall. When the crop is listed extreme care should be 
1 Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 132, pp. 16-17. 



398 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

exercised to prevent the seed from- being covered deeper 
than is necessary for good germination. Otherwise the 
seed are likely to rot. 

493. Cultivation. — ■ In general the cultivation of the 
grain-sorghums is the same as for corn. During the early 
growth free use should be made of the weeder and harrow 
as the young plants are tough and not likely to break. 

494. Harvesting the grain-sorghums. — For grain pro- 
duction the grain-sorghums should be allowed to get 
fully ripe before cutting. Those varieties that shatter 
badly may be harvested a few days early to prevent waste 
of seed. For silage these crops should be cut when in the 
dough stage as hard seeds in silage are likely to go through 
the animals undigested. 

The grain-sorghums may be cut with a corn binder and 
shocked like corn. When they are grown on a large scale, 
this is the most economical method of harvesting. Smaller 
areas may be cut with the sled cutter or by hand. The 
heads may be subsequently removed by laying the bundles 
on a block and cutting them off with a broadaxe or saw. 
The heads are often removed from the standing stalks 
with a sharp knife. The ordinary grain-header has been 
recommended for this purpose but the height of the plants 
and the presence of pendent heads in some varieties pre- 
vent its general use. The dwarf type of milo can be har- 
vested readily and rapidly with the grain-header. 

The heads are thrashed by running them through an 
ordinary thrashing machine. If the heads have not been 
detached from the stalks the ends of the bundles may be 
inserted in the thrasher and withdrawn when the grain is 
removed. 

495. Culture of broom-corn. — Broom-corn will make 
a satisfactory yield on any soil well suited to ordinary corn, 



THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 399 

provided climatic conditions are favorable. But as the 
value of the crop is determined as much by the quality 
and uniformity of the brush as by the yield to the acre, 
extreme precaution must be taken to have the land as 
uniform as possible, particularly as regards its produc- 
tiveness. The land is prepared as for corn and the seed 
planted at the same season as that recommended for grain- 
sorghum. For standard broom-corn the rows should be 
33/^ feet apart with the plants 3 to 5 inches apart in the 
row. For dwarf broom-corn the rows should be 3 feet 
apart with the plants 2 to 4 inches apart in the row. A 
uniform stand is of paramount importance. If the plants 
do not stand at regular distances in the row, the brush 
will not be uniform and its value will thereby be greatly 
reduced. About two quarts of seed are required to plant 
an acre. The seed may be planted with any form of corn 
planter equipped with sorghum plates. The cultivation 
is the same as for corn or the other sorghum types. 

496. Harvesting broom-corn. — Harvesting is the 
most important operation in the production of broom-corn. 
To produce a brush of high quality, the crop must be cut 
when just past full bloom but before the seeds have formed. 
The important qualities sought for are a tough, flexible, 
uniform brush possessing a green color. If allowed to 
mature the brush is brittle and loses its green color. 

Dwarf broom-corn is harvested by "pulling" the heads 
by hand, about a foot of the stalk remaining attached. 
As standard broom-corn grows tall it must be "tabled" 
before harvesting. "In tabling, one man passes backward 
between two rows, bending the stalks at a point about 30 
inches above the ground toward each other and across the 
row, so that the heads hang al)out two feet past the other 
row. Two men following cut off the heads and place them 



400 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

evenly, on every other table. Three men can harvest 
about two acres per day. Later- a team with a wagon 
passes over the empty tables and the brush is collected." ^ 
After the brush has been pulled or cut, it is hauled to 
the drying shed. Here the coarse or knotty brush is sep- 
arated from the straight heads; the crop is then thrashed. 
Sorting and thrashing often take place before the brush 
reaches the drying shed. When large quantities are to be 
thrashed the broom-corn thrasher should be used. Small 
quantities may be thrashed by "scraping" the seed from 
the brush by hand. After the brush has been thrashed, it 
should be placed under shelter and permitted to dry 
rapidly, especially if the bright green color is to be main- 
tained. It is then pressed into bales weighing from 300 to 
400 pounds each, and is ready for the market. 

1 Montgomery, E. G., "The Corn Crops," p. 338. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

SUGAR-CANE (Saccharum offidnarum) 

Sugar-cane is a rank-growing, coarse-stemmed peren- 
nial grass. It is grown for its stems, the juice of which is 
extracted for making sugar, sirup, and molasses. 

497. Nativity. — The genus Saccharum includes about 
a dozen species, all of which are native to the Old World. 
The natural habitat of wild sugar-cane is thought to have 
been southeastern Asia, although it is doubtful whether 
the wild form has ever been observed by any scientist. 
The domesticated sugar-cane is a very ancient crop, the 
origin of its culture having been lost in antiquity. It is 
probable that sugar-cane is one of the first crops cultivated 
by tropical people. 

DESCRIPTION 

498. The plant. — Usually a plant of sugar-cane 
consists of a number of stalks growing together in a cluster, 
a habit that is due to the tendency of the main-stem, and 
oftentimes the secondary stems, to throw up additional 
stems from the underground nodes. The usual height 
of the plant is 8 to 12 feet, although in tropical regions it 
grows taller (Fig. 71). 

The duration of the plants varies in different regions. 
In tropical countries one planting usually furnishes several 
harvests, the stubble remaining alive from season to 
season. In the Gulf Coast region of the United States two 
or three crops are usually secured from one planting, while 

401 



402 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 




Fl(. :i A h. Ill ..t >UL.ai-.-a 



SUGAR-CANE 403 

in the pine-belt region east of Louisiana and north of 
Florida, the plants do not endure the winter and annual 
planting is necessary. 

499. Roots. — The root-system of sugar-cane is fibrous 
and is confined largely to the upper portion of the soil. 
Where the water-table is not near the surface a few of the 
roots penetrate the soil to a depth of several feet. No 
single prominent tap-root is produced. The roots spring 
from the joints of the underground nodes of the stem. 
A band of transparent dots surrounds the stem at each 
node. It is from these dots on the underground stem that 
the true roots arise. As a rule the roots branch but little. 

The root-system of sugar-cane is especially susceptible 
to injury by nematodes and fungous pests. The ravages 
of the nematodes make entrances through which the fungi 
enter. To avoid these injuries, sugar-cane should not be 
grown continuously on the same land. 

In addition to the roots which spring from the under- 
ground nodes, the lower nodes of the above-ground stem 
are usually well supplied with incipient roots. Most of 
these roots enter the ground and function actively in 
promoting the growth of the plant. 

500. The leaves. — The leaves of sugar-cane are 
broad and range in length from two to three feet. Each 
leaf possesses a central mid-rib somewhat similar to that 
in the corn leaf. The lower part of the leaf (the sheath) 
folds around the stem and serves to protect the bud or eye 
which is borne at the node. As the stem matures the leaf- 
sheaths fall away from the stem. The falling of a leaf- 
sheath indicates the maturity of the internode next below 
this leaf. 

501. Inflorescence. — In tropical countries most varie- 
ties of sugar-cane "arrow" or throw out a dense silky 



404 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

panicle at the top of the plant when twelve to thirteen 
months old, and reach maturity some three months later. 
The flowers are borne in small spikelets, which are sur- 
rounded by long silky hairs. Until recent years it was 
thought that the flowers of sugar-cane were always in- 
fertile. In recent years, however, scientists have succeeded 
in rearing seedling canes. A very small percentage of the 
seed produced in a panicle is fertile and the germinating 
power of these fertile seed decreases rapidly after maturity 
so that at the end of a few weeks it is often wholly 
lost. 

As a rule sugar-cane does not arrow and produce seed 
in the United States. In exceptionally mild winters seed 
may be produced in the extreme southern parishes of 
Louisiana and in southern Florida. 

502. The stem. — The industrial value of sugar-cane 
is so intimately associated with the structure of the stems 
and the amount and nature of the juice that a knowledge 
of these essential features is especially important. 

The stems are large, cylindrical, and distinctly jointed. 
The length of the internodes varies in different varieties 
and is decreased by any condition unfavorable to the 
normal development of the plant. The internodes are 
relatively short at the base of the stem and gradually 
increase in length toward the upper part. 

At each joint on the stem, and occurring alternately on 
opposite sides, is a bud about the size of half a pea. It is 
from these buds that the next crop grows when the canes 
are planted. 

The color of the sugar-cane stem varies in different 
varieties. Purple, striped purple and white, and green are 
among the most common colors. Many other colors 
occur, especially in varieties grown in tropical countries. 



SUGAR-CANE 405 

503. Structure of the stem. — The sugar-cane stem 
is composed of juice and fiber. The outer part, commonly 
called the rind, consists of a strong, tough fibrous tissue 
which gives strength and firmness to the stem. Inclosed 
by the rind are the white pith-cells which contain the 
saccharine juice. Numerous fine parallel fibers extend 
lengthwise the stem through the pith-cells of the inter- 
nodes and are closely woven together at the nodes. For 
this reason the nodes are especially dense and fibrous and 
contain very little juice. These fibrous strands extending 
throughout the stem contain the vessels or passages 
through which the water and dissolved plant-food from 
the soil are brought upward to the leaves, and also the 
smaller vessels known as "sieve tubes" which convey the 
digested sap from the leaves to the other parts of the plant. 

As the fiber is most compact at the nodes it follows that 
those stems having numerous nodes close together are 
lowest in juice. For this reason canes with long internodes 
are generally desired, other things being equal. It fre- 
quently happens, however, that the canes that are low 
in fiber and therefore high in sugar are less resistant to 
diseases and the ravages of stalk borers than the more 
filirous sorts. In some cases this susceptibility to disease 
makes it necessary to replace the long-jointed, delicate 
sorts with varieties having more fiber. Varieties with 
large stems are generally viewed with more favor than 
those with small stalks because of their greater strength, 
and because they contain more available space for the 
production of juice, 

504. Amount and distribution of juice. — The juice 
often makes up as much as 90 per cent of the weight of the 
stripped stems. The amount of juice varies with different 
varieties and under different environmental conditions. 



406 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Any condition that retards growth tends to decrease also 
the percentage of juice contained, although the concentra- 
tion of the juice is usually increased. 

The amount of juice varies in different parts of the same 
plant and also with the stage of maturity. The juice 
reaches its maximum near the middle of the stalk and 
decreases near the ends, the decrease being greatest near 
the top. The sugar content of the plant is greatest during 
maturation. 

505. Composition of the juice. — The juice of sugar- 
cane is a solution of certain soluble ingredients, notably 
sugars, salts, acids, and the like, in the cell-water. As 
extracted by the mill it contains also some insoluble matter, 
such as wax, fat, albuminoids, dirt, and particles of fiber. 
The sugars are the constituents which give the juice its 
value. The three principal sugars are sucrose (C12 H22 
Oil), dextrose (Cg H12 Og) and levulose (Cg Hjo Og). Su- 
crose, which crystallizes out as cane-sugar, is the constit- 
uent of greatest value. In fact, within the sugar-belt, 
the presence in the cane of saccharine matters other than 
sucrose is deprecated by planters, as these substances not 
only fail to crystallize but their presence causes some of 
the sucrose to fail to make sugar. In commercial work 
dextrose (often called grape-sugar) and levulose (often 
called fructose or fruit-sugar) together with certain other 
saccharine substances of minor importance, are generally 
spoken of collectively as glucose. Chemically speaking, 
the term glucose is applicable to dextrose only. 

506. Conditions affecting the composition of the 
juice. — The Louisiana Station has shown that climate, 
variety, culture, soil and fertilization are factors that have 
an influence upon the composition of sugar-cane juice. It 
was noticed that relatively dry weather during the fall 



SUGAR-CANE 



407 



months accompanied by a relatively high temperature de- 
creased the tonnage of cane produced but increased the 
percentage of sucrose in the juice, whereas the opposite 
conditions greatly retarded the ripening of the cane, re- 
sulting in the production of a high tonnage of cane having 
a low sucrose content.^ 

The following table illustrates the influence that the 
variety has upon the composition of sugar-cane juice: 

Table 38. Showing Percentage of Sucrose, Glucose and Ash 
IN THE Juice of Four Varieties of Sugar-Cane - 



Variety 


D. 74 


D. 95 


Purple 


Striped 


Sucrose 

Glucose 

Ash 


4.88 

3.24 

.48 


2.45 

3.87 

.41 


2.35 

4.04 

.40 


2.03 

4.26 

.34 



That conditions of cultivation have a marked influence 
upon the composition of sugar-cane is shown by the follow- 
ing data (Table 39, page 408) from the Louisiana Station 
secured as a result of the comparative study of plant and 
stubble canes. 

In discussing these results, Browne and Blouin of the 
Louisiana Station say: "There is, of course, a physiological 
explanation of these differences. In stubble cane we have 
a partially dwarfed condition and according to a well- 
established law, when growth is checked, maturation is 
hastened. Exactly the same effect is produced by the 
non-fertilization of cane. Canes grown on the non- 
manured plots at the sugar experiment station average 
much less in weight, but are higher in sucrose than canes 
which have been fertilized." ^ 

I La. Sta., Bui. 91, p. 22. ^ l^. Sta., Bui. 91, p. 23. 

»La. Sta., Bui. 91, p. 26. 



408 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



Table 39. Relative Yield, and Fiber and Sugar Content op 
Plant and Stubble Canes ^ 







Plant 


1st Year 


2nd Year 








Stubble 


Stubble 




Weight stalk 


1894 gm. 


1262 gm. 


1042 gm. 




Fiber 


6.56% 


7.45% 


8.02% 


Striped Cane 


Sucrose 


4.79% 


6.03% 


8.45% 




Dextrose 


2.05% 


2.27% 


1.97% 




Levulose 


1.60% 


1.73% 


1.64% 




Weight stalk 


1575 gm. 


1497 gm. 


1163 gm. 




Fiber 


6.28% 


7.12% 


7.16% 


D. 74 Cane 


Sucrose 


6.33% 


7.36% 


8.24% 




Dextrose 


1.84% 


1.65% 


1.83% 




Levulose 


1.35% 


1.20% 


1.12% 



507. Relative composition of cane in the Louisiana 
sugar-belt and in the coastal pine-belt. — Sugar-cane 
grown on the sandy uplands of the coastal pine-belt is 
ordinarily richer in total sugars than cane grown on the 
alluvial lands in Louisiana. This difference is due prin- 
cipally to the shorter growing season in the upland pine- 
belt which increases the percentage of glucose, or non- 
crystallizable sugar in the ca^es. The percentage of sucrose 
in the cane is about equal in the two regions. 

As the greater part of the cane crop grown in the coastal 
pine-belt is utilized for making sirup, the high glucose 
content is a decided advantage as it decreases the tendency 
of the sirup to turn to sugar. The cane crop of this region 
is not especially suitable for making sugar as the glucose 
will not crystallize and its presence prevents some of the 
sucrose from crystallizing. 



1 La. Sta., Bui. 91, p. 24. 



SUGAR-CANE 409 

VARIETIES AND IMPROVEMENT OF SUGAR-CANE 

508. Varieties. — Four varieties of sugar-cane make 
up the bulk of the crop in the cane-growing regions of the 
United States. These are the Purple, or Red Cane, the 
Striped, or true Ribbon Cane and the recent varieties re- 
ferred to as D. 74 and D. 95. The Purple and Striped 
varieties were introduced into Louisiana in 1825 by John 
J. Coiron, a planter. The distribution of these excellent 
varieties throughout the State gave the sugar industry of 
that region a substantial impetus. Notwithstanding the 
large number of varieties that were subsequently intro- 
duced, particularly by the Louisiana Sugar Station, the 
Purple and Striped canes ranked as the best varieties for 
Louisiana conditions until within recent years when the 
Louisiana Station introduced from Demerara the two new 
varieties referred to as D. 74 and D. 95. These latter 
varieties have received from the Louisiana Station the 
unqualified recommendation as being better than the 
Purple and Striped canes for Louisiana conditions. Both 
are early maturing varieties, reaching maturity in about 
10 months even when grown in sections where the entire 
twelve months is available for their development. Their 
chief advantages are, (1) high yield, (2) high percentage 
of crystallizable sugar and (3) high purity of the juice. 

"D. 95 is a large, erect, purple cane. It has long joints, 
large stalks, and pale green foliage; it ''suckers" or 
"rattoons" well and is fully as hardy toward cold as 
ordinary purple cane. 

"D. 74 is a tall, erect, green cane with long joints and a 
deep green foliage. It " suckers " abundantly and produces 
large stalks and heavy yields." ^ 

1 J. F. Duggar, "Southern Field Crops," p. 506. 



410 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

According to tests made by the Louisiana Station, the 
Striped cane, when compared with the Purple, grew sHghtly 
larger and the stalks were softer and consequently more 
easily crushed, whereas the Purple cane was hardier and 
suckered more abundantly than did the Striped cane. The 
Purple cane is the most popular variety in the Coastal pine- 
belt. Green cane is a popular variety for chewing purposes. 

Little attention seems to have been given to varieties of 
sugar-cane for the Florida cane region other than that the 
best growers usually select the light colored canes because 
they produce a light colored sirup. 

509. Japanese sugar-cane. — This variety is suffi- 
ciently distinct from the varieties described above to 
warrant separate discussion. It is especially hardy, and 
is successfully grown throughout all Florida, southern 
Georgia, southern Alabama, southern Mississippi, Lou- 
isiana, and southern Texas. The stems are slender, which 
characteristic makes the stripping of the leaves a laborious 
and expensive operation. Because of the extra labor in- 
volved in stripping the leaves and because the stems are 
harder and more woody than those of other varieties, 
Japanese cane is not generally recommended for sugar or 
sirup making. It is most valuable when used as a forage 
crop for feeding live-stock. It suckers profusely and is 
therefore an excellent yielder. South of latitude 33 the 
stubble will generally survive the winter, a single planting 
usually sufficing for two or more years. It makes excellent 
winter pasture, and is also valuable either for silage or dry 
forage. 

510. Improvement. — There is much variability among 
plants of sugar-cane not only as regards vigor of growth 
but also in the amount and quality of the juice contained. 
As these differences are often hereditary, much improve- 



SUGAR-CANE 411 

ment can be accomplished by a careful selection of the 
seed-canes. The continuous planting of large canes 
through six generations by the Louisiana Sugar Exper- 
iment Station resulted in an average production of 30 
tons of cane an acre as compared with an average produc- 
tion of 25.95 tons to the acre for the same period where 
small canes were planted. All defective, diseased, or 
immature canes should be discarded if the most profitable 
results are to be secured. The planting of immature, 
poorly developed canes results in a very uneven stand and 
the production of many short-jointed small canes. Early 
maturity is an important factor in selecting the best plants 
for conditions in this country. 

In recent years much attention has been given to the 
work of propagating new varieties of cane from seed rather 
than by planting the stems. As sugar-cane belongs to that 
group of plants which does not come true to type when 
grown from seed, a crop of seedlings exhibits an enormous 
amount of diversity, opening up a wide field for selection. 
Throughout the tropical cane-growing regions many valu- 
able varieties have been produced by this method. Since 
1906 the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station at Audubon 
Park, Louisiana, has succeeded in producing a large num- 
ber of seedling canes, the seed being secured from tropical 
countries. It is highly probable that as this work con- 
tinues some of these seedling canes will be developed into 
excellent varieties. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

SUGAR-CANE — CLIMATE, SOILS, ROTATIONS, 
FERTILIZERS AND TILLAGE PRACTICES 

The area within which sugar-cane can be successfully- 
grown in the United States is limited primarily by cli- 
matic conditions, such as temperature, length of the 
growing season, rainfall and the like. These limiting 
factors are easily recognized by farmers. The extent to 
which the essentials of good farm management, including 
proper cropping systems and good tillage practices, in- 
fluence the profitable production of sugar-cane has not 
been so generally recognized. 

511. Climate. — Sugar-cane is adapted to a tropical 
climate, although early maturing varieties are successfully 
grown in semi-tropical regions. For best results, a grow- 
ing season of 12 to 14 months is required. The climatic 
conditions best suited to sugar-cane are found in Cuba, 
Java, Hawaii, Porto Rico, Philippine Islands, and the 
Gulf Coast region of the United States, particularly in 
Louisiana, southern Florida, and southern Texas. In 
the United States sugar-cane for sirup is also grown as 
far north as latitude 33, including southern Georgia, south- 
ern Alabama, and southern Mississippi. Throughout 
the greater part of the cane-growing region of the United 
States, the season does not extend over ten months. 

512. Soils. — • Sugar-cane is a gross feeder and re- 
quires large quantities of water and food. The best soils 
for this crop are the rich alluvial soils that are well supplied 

412 



SUGAR-CANE — CLIMATE, TILLAGE 413 

with the plant-food materials and that have a high water- 
holding capacity. In the cane-growing regions of the 
United States, soils of this character are most abundant 
in Louisiana. While sugar-cane is a heavy consumer 
of moisture, it must have an open, well-drained soil with 
the water-table below the feeding area of the roots. If 
the soil is not naturally well-drained, artificial drainage 
should be provided. Soils naturally acid are unsuited to 
sugar-cane. Such soils should receive an application of 
lime before being planted to this crop. 

In the coastal pine-belt of the United States, most of 
the soils planted to sugar-cane are of a sandy nature. 
These soils usually require rather heavy applications of 
manures or fertilizers if profitable crops are to be pro- 
duced. In Florida the better grades of high pine land pro- 
duce from 15 to 25 tons of cane. The roUing pine lands 
are well adapted to sugar-cane without further drainage. 
The flat-woods' soils, the flat hammock lands and re- 
claimed marsh lands generally require artificial drainage. 

The yield of cane on the sandy soils of the pine-belt is 
less than on the alluvial soils of Louisiana, but the juice 
is richer in total sugars, which is a partial compensation 
for the smaller yields. 

513. Rotations. — The highest yields of sugar-cane 
are produced where the cane is planted on land which has 
the year previously been planted to cowpeas, velvet 
beans, or such crops as will add to the supply of organic 
matter and nitrogen in the soil. The heavy growth of 
stalks and the practice of burning the leaves rapidly ex- 
hausts the soil nitrogen and sugar-cane should never follow 
itself on the same land, except where it is desirable to grow 
one or more crops of "stubble" cane. A rotation quite 
generally practiced by the best sugar-cane planters in 



414 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

Louisiana is: First year, corn with cowpeas sown broad- 
cast at the last cultivation; second year, sugar-cane from 
planted cane; third year, sugar-cane from old stubble. On 
rich land a second crop of "stubble cane" is often grown. 

As a rule the entire crop of cowpeas should be plowed 
under. The Louisiana Sugar Station secured an increase 
of 7.4 tons of cane to the acre from plowing under the en- 
tire growth of cowpeas as compared with plowing under 
only the cowpea stubble. 

The Florida Station recommends sweet potatoes or 
velvet beans as crops to precede sugar-cane in that State. 

514. Fertilizers. — ■ There are few crops so exhaustive 
of soil nitrogen as sugar-cane. The tonnage of dry matter 
removed to the acre is greater than is generally taken 
from the land with other crops. In addition the leaves 
and tops are usually burned in the field and the nitrogen 
they contain is thus lost. While in most cases the nitrogen 
can be profitably returned to the soil in commercial fer- 
tilizers it can be even more profitably returned by plowing 
under, every third or fourth year, a luxuriant growth of 
cowpeas or velvet beans. 

Commercial materials that may be used as sources of 
nitrogen are cotton-seed meal, dried blood, tankage, ni- 
trate of soda, and sulfate of ammonia. The first three are 
organic materials. The nitrogen in these materials is not 
so readily soluble as that in the mineral fertihzers, and 
for this reason the organic materials are usually preferred 
on sandy soils that are subjected to heavy leaching. If 
quick results are desired, the nitrate of soda or sulfate of 
ammonia should be appHed. 

The need for phosphoric acid in the sugar-cane belt is 
quite general and as a rule it is second in importance to 
nitrogen. It is supplied in the form of acid phosphate. 



SUGAR-CANE — CLIMATE, TILLAGE 415 

Most soils in the cane-belt are in less need of potash ferti- 
lizers than of nitrogenous or phosphatic materials. 

515. Fertilizers for cane in Louisiana. — Experiments 
at the Louisiana Sugar Station have indicated that as 
much as 48 pounds of nitrogen and 36 pounds of phos- 
phoric acid to the acre can be applied with profit in com- 
mercial fertilizers. To supply the 48 pounds of nitrogen 
would require either 240 pounds of sulfate of ammonia, 
340 pounds of nitrate of soda, 343 pounds of dried blood 
containing 14 per cent nitrogen or 685 pounds of cotton- 
seed meal. The 36 pounds of phosphoric acid would re- 
quire 225 pounds of acid phosphate containing 16 per 
cent phosphoric acid. A very popular fertihzer in the cane- 
belt of Louisiana is slaughter-house tankage which con- 
tains from 6 to 10 per cent of nitrogen and good quantities 
of phosphoric acid. It is appUed in quantities ranging 
from 400 to 1,000 pounds to the acre. It is sometimes 
supplemented with 100 to 300 pounds of acid phosphate 
to the acre. Very little advantage has been secured from 
the application of potash fertilizers to cane in Louisiana. 
516. Fertilizers for cane in the pine-belt. — Experi- 
ments conducted at the McNeill Station in southern Mis- 
sissippi indicate that 1,000 to 1,500 pounds to the acre 
of a fertilizer composed of equal parts of acid phosphate 
and cotton-seed meal may be used profitably for sugar- 
cane. Where the cane follows a leguminous crop it is 
recommended that the amount of nitrogen in the fertilizer 
be reduced for the first year. "On the stubble cane of 
the year following the supply of nitrogen should be in- 
creased by using equal parts of meal and phosphate and 
in case a second year's stubble is grown it would be well 
to use a mixture of two parts cotton-seed meal and one 
part of acid phosphate." The bulk of the fertilizer should 



416 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

be applied in the spring on both sides of the rows just 
before the dirt is thrown back to the cane. 

A series of fertilizer experiments with sugar-cane con- 
ducted on poor, sandy pine land in southern Georgia by 
the United States Department of Agriculture gave results 
which justified the recommendation of 1,100 pounds of 
fertilizer to the acre composed of 

600 pounds high-grade acid phosphate 

100 pounds cotton-seed meal 

300 pounds nitrate of soda 

100 pounds sulfate or muriate of potash. 

Where a crop of velvet beans had been plowed under 
the following combination of fertilizers gave best results: 

1,100 pounds high-grade acid phosphate 

100 pounds nitrate of soda 

100 pounds muriate of potash 
1,300 pounds, total to the acre. 

The recommendations of the Florida Station with refer- 
ence to fertilizing sugar-cane are given in the following 
quotation:^ "On high pine land a fertilizer analyzing 
5 per cent of ammonia, 4 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 
8 per cent of potash, should be applied at the rate of 600 
to 1,000 pounds per acre, ten days l^efore planting. The 
ammonia should come from an organic source, because 
of the long season required by the crop for growing. If 
the crop appears uneven and yellow, and shows an un- 
thrifty, appearance, it will be advisable to give a second 
application of ammonia not later than August 1st. This 
ammonia should be applied in the form of nitrate of soda 
at the rate of 200 pounds per acre and broadcasted. It 
matters little in what form the potash or phosphoric acid 

1 Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 118, p. 53. 



SUGAR-CANE — CLIMATE, TILLAGE 417 

is applied because of the gross feeding tendencies of the 
sugar-cane plant. It is, however, conceded by some 
growers that a better grade of sirup will be produced by 
using sulfate of potash, instead of muriate of potash or 
kainit. This, however, is still an open question." 

INIany farmers, particularly in the pine-belt, make rather 
liberal use of stable manure in fertilizing sugar-cane. 
While this greatly increases the yield it is apt to give the 
sirup a dark color and inferior flavor. 

TILLAGE PRACTICES 

517. Preparation of the land. — Soil intended for 
sugar-cane should be plowed as long in advance of plant- 
ing time as the previous crop will permit. In Louisiana 
the land is usually plowed in August or September, es- 
pecially if the previous crops were corn with cowpeas. 
In most cases the ordinary mold-board plow is used, al- 
though the turning under of green-manure crops can be 
better accomplished with a disk plow. In three to five 
weeks after plowing the land is bedded for planting. This 
consists of forming ridges or high beds usually six feet 
wide although "ridged rows, five feet apart, are probably 
productive of the best results."^ As the cane fields are 
flat and wet the ridges are necessary to facilitate drainage. 
As an additional step in draining the land the water- 
furrows between the ridges are deepened with a double 
mold-board plow. At suitable intervals, "quarter drains" 
are constructed at right angles to the ridges and from 
4 to 8 inches deeper than the water-furrows. Running 
parallel with the rows, and 100 to 125 feet apart, deep nar- 
row ditches are constructed into which the "quarter 
drains" empty. 

1 La. Sugar Exp. Sta., Bui. 129, p. 32. 



418 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

In the coastal pine-belt, where the soils are usually well 
drained and likely to be droughty, the land is thoroughly 
plowed several weeks before planting and is prepared 
level, no ridges being formed. 

518. Time of planting. — In practice the seed-cane 
is planted in either fall or spring. In Louisiana, southern 
Mississippi and in parts of Florida fall planting is desira- 
ble. Usually better weather conditions for planting are 
secured in the fall. Fall planting avoids the practice of 
windrowing or bedding the seed-canes for spring planting. 
Also fall-planted canes sprout quicker in the spring and 
fewer eyes are lost during the winter. In Louisiana plant- 
ing begins in the fall as soon as the plants reach sufficient 
maturity and continues until the grinding season in No- 
vember. The areas that are not planted in the fall are 
planted in February or March. Throughout the greater 
part of the pine-belt, sugar-cane is planted chiefly in the 
first half of March. 

519. Method of planting. — In planting sugar-cane 
the practice varies from planting whole cane to planting 
a single joint every fifteen inches to two feet. In the cane- 
growing regions of the United States the common practice 
is to plant the whole cane. There are some planters, how- 
ever, who believe that the seed-canes should always be 
cut; otherwise the eyes that sprout first will draw strength 
from the unsprouted eyes on the same stalk and therefore 
either prevent their coming up or cause them to produce 
weak plants. The Louisiana Station has shown this belief 
to be erroneous. On the other hand, cutting serves to in- 
troduce fermentation and decay. If the seed-canes are 
crooked they should be cut in two or more pieces so that 
they will lie flat in the furrow. 

In Louisiana a furrow is opened in the top of each 



SUGAR-CANE — CLIMATE, TILLAGE 419 

bed with a double mold-board plow. This furrow should 
not be as deep as the water-furrow. The whole cane 
stalks are laid in the bottom of these furrows in single 
or double rows. This cane is covered with soil to a 
depth of from three to four inches, usually with a disk 
cultivator. As soon as the crop has been planted the 
middles should be run out with a double mold-board plow 
and the "quarter drains" and ditches put in good shape 
to handle the heavy rainfall of winter. 

In the coastal pine-belt planting is done chiefly in the 
spring, from March 1st to 20th, although fall planting is 
becoming popular in some sections. At the McNeill Sta- 
tion in southern Mississippi best results were secured from 
fall planting. For fall planting in southern Mississippi, 
Ferris ^ recommends that the rows be opened 43^2 or 5 
feet apart with a middle buster or with two furrows from 
a turn-plow. The seed-cane should be placed in these 
furrows and covered with three or four inches of soil. If 
the soil is dry at planting time a heavy roller should follow 
the covering of the cane to cause the moisture to rise and 
prevent the seed from being destroyed by "dry rot." 

The cane that is planted in the spring receives a shal- 
lower covering of soil than that which is planted in the fall. 
Where it is necessary to cover the canes deeply to protect 
them from cold weather, part of the soil should be removed 
before the young plants come up. This can be done by 
running a spike-tooth harrow over the rows and parallel 
with them. 

520. Keeping seed-cane over winter. — Seed-cane that 

is to be planted in the spring must be harvested in 

the fall before frost and must be protected from cold 

during the winter. In Louisiana this is done by cutting 

1 Miss. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 129, p. 4. 



420 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

and windrowing the plants in every other water-furrow, 
the tops being left on the plants. The plants are placed 
shingle fashion in the furrows so that the tops and leaves 
protect the stems underneath. The cane is then well 
covered with soil by means of a turn-plow. If necessary 
hoes are used to complete the covering. In the spring 
the soil is partially removed and the cane withdrawn, 
usually with horses or mules attached to suitable imple- 
ments. 

In the pine-belt the seed-canes are kept in beds that are 
about six feet wide and eight inches below the surface 
of the ground. The canes are placed in these beds in even 
layers, each layer extending ten inches forward of the 
previous one and the tops thus covering the joints of the 
lower layers. After being filled the bed is covered with 
about two inches of soil. Special precautions must be 
taken to see that water does not stand in the bed at any 
time; otherwise the eyes will be destroyed by fermenta- 
tion. It is highly essential, however, that the seed-canes 
be kept fairly moist to prevent injury from "dry- 
rot." 

The amount of seed-cane required to plant an acre 
varies from 3 to Aj^ tons, depending on the method of 
planting. 

621. Cultivation. — As soon as the cold weather of 
winter has passed, the surplus soil must be removed from 
the cane so as to admit the warmth of spring. In Louisiana 
and southern Mississippi this is accomplished by a process 
termed "off-barring," which consists in throwing the soil 
from the sides of the cane rows toward the middle, usually 
with a two-mule turn-plow. The soil immediately over 
the cane row is then removed with the exception of a layer 
an inch, or a little more, in thickness. This is often done 



SUGAR-CANE — CLIMATE, TILLAGE 421 

with hoes although there is an implement called the "scra- 
per" especially designed for doing this work, which re- 
moves the soil more economically than can be done with 
hoes. This leaves the cane in a narrow, well-drained ridge 
which warms up readily and causes the rapid germination 
of the buds. When the cane has come to a stand the fer- 
tilizer should be apphed. It is distributed along both 
sides of the row in the off-bar furrows and also over the 
row. The soil is then returned to the cane by means of 
plows and the middles are opened with a double mold- 
board plow. The subsequent cultivation is effected usu- 
ally by means of disk cultivators which straddle the rows, 
and are so adjusted as to throw the soil toward the cane 
at each working. The middles are kept stirred by the use 
of special implements called "middle cultivators." "Cul- 
tivation should be continued until the cane has reached 
such a height that the mules and implements can no long 
pass through without causing material injury." ^ 

When a crop of stubble cane is grown the first tillage 
in the spring consists in loosening the soil with a stubble 
digger, after the dried tops and leaves of the preceding 
crop have been burned. Sometimes a "stubble shaver" 
is used to cut off, below the surface of the soil, the 
stubble on which the upper eyes have been injured. 
Stubble cane is fertilized by applying the fertilizer in 
a furrow near the line of stubble and by covering it with 
soil. 

Throughout the greater part of the pine-belt, the culti- 
vation of sugar-cane is similar to that of corn. The Flor- 
ida Station recommends that fertilizers for sugar-cane in 
that State be applied before planting. In this case, and 
particularly when the cane is planted in the spring, the 
1 La. Sugar Exp. Sta., Bui. 129, p. 34. 



422 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

first two or three cultivations may be given with the weeder 
or harrow, run in any direction over the rows. Later cul- 
tivations may be given with one or two-horse cultivators 
adjusted to run shallow. Frequent cultivation should be 
given until the cane is well grown. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

SUGAR-CANE — HARVESTING, USES, INSECT 
PESTS AND DISEASES 

The primary requisites in securing profits from sugar- 
cane production are (1) large crops economically produced 
and, (2) the proper handling of the crop so as to render 
possible its manufacture into a product of high quality, 
whether it be sugar or sirup. In order that both of these 
requisites may be secured, the planter, in addition to 
knowing how to plant, fertilize, and cultivate the crop, 
should have a knowledge of the proper time and method 
of harvesting the crop, and should also be familiar with 
such practical means of preventing or reducing loss from 
the insect pests and diseases of sugar-cane as are available. 

HARVESTING 

522. Time of harvesting. — Sugar-cane must be har- 
vested before frost. But the longer the crop can stand 
without danger of frost, the higher will be the sucrose 
content, which not only increases the amount of sugar 
or sirup secured but also greatly improves the quality 
of the product. When the plant is grown for sugar the 
proper stage of maturity for harvesting is indicated by 
the browning of the lower leaves and the loosening of 
the leaves on the stalk. Another good rule in the sugar- 
belt is to allow the crop to stand, if practical, until the 
fresh juice is thick enough to show a test of 8 degrees on 
the Baume spindle. In Louisiana the bulk of the crop is 

423 



424 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

cut in November. That portion of the crop that is to be 
used for seed-cane is cut earlier than the main crop. 

In west Florida, stripping the blades from the stalks 
begins the last week in October; the date is two weeks 
later in central Florida. Cutting begins about November 
15th in west Florida and ten days later in central 
Florida. 

523. Stripping, topping, and cutting. — Harvesting 
consists in stripping the blades from the stalks, removing 
the tops, and cutting the stalks at the surface of the 
ground. The cane-knife is most commonly used for this 
purpose. It consists of a "flat piece of steel on a suitable 
handle with a slight hook on the back for stripping." The 
blades are removed by two downward strokes with the 
back of the knife; the third stroke removes the top and the 
fourth cuts the stalk at the ground. In Louisiana the en- 
tire operation is completed as the workman proceeds. 

A simple cane stripper has been invented by Wm. 
House, a farmer of Cairo, Georgia. It is made of "two 
pieces of thin steel about 15 inches long by 1 inch wide 
and Vi6 inch thick, bent and flared at one end so as to 
slip over and fit around the stalk of cane and securely 
braded at the other end to a handle three feet long." 
When this stripper is pressed against the plant the stalk 
slips into the space made by the curves in the steel blades. 
The leaves are then removed by one downward stroke. 
Other laborers follow with knives and remove the tops 
and cut the stalks. 

Machine cutters have been invented but so far no ma- 
chine has been a great success, owing to the extreme diffi- 
culty of handling crooked canes by machinery. 

524. Handling the harvested cane. — Immediately 
after the cane is cut it is started to the mill, as fermenta- 



SUGAR-CANE — HARVESTING, ENEMIES 425 

tion soon begins which if allowed to proceed will greatly 
diminish the sucrose content. Hand labor is commonly 
used in loading the cane on the carriers that take it to the 
mill, although mechanical cane loaders are coming into 
rather wide use in Louisiana. These usually consist of 
a heavy wagon on which is mounted a swinging boom. 
From the end of the boom a grapple fork, operated by a 
gasoline engine, is lowered and lifts the cane from the heaps 
on the ground to the carts, or from the carts into the 
railroad cars. Plantation railways are sometimes built 
in the more important cane-growing regions. Much 
ingenuity has been exercised in the invention of engines, 
trucks, and portal3le rails adapted to this purpose. 

Many patterns of unloaders have been invented and are 
in successful use. The problems of unloading the cane at 
the mills and transporting it to the rollers are much simpler 
than those involved in loading and transporting the cut 
cane from the plantation to the mill. 

525. Yields. — From 25 to 30 tons of stripped cane 
to the acre is considered a good yield in Louisiana. The 
average yield for the state is about 21 tons to the acre. 
The amount of sugar secured from a ton of cane varies 
with the sucrose content of the cane and with the kind of 
mill used in grinding. As a rule a ton of cane will yield 
from 150 to 160 pounds of sugar, and in addition 5 or 6 
gallons of molasses. In making sirup alone the average 
acre in the sugar-belt of Louisiana will yield from 500 to 
600 gallons. 

In the coastal pine-belt, the average yiekl of cane to the 
acre is about 15 tons. On reasonably good land a yield of 
20 tons of plant oanc and 15 tons of stubble cane to the acre 
may be expected. Throughout this region a ton of cane 
corresponds roughly to 20 gallons of sirup at a density of 



426 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

33 degrees Baume, or an average yield of about 300 gallons 
to the acre. 

Certain Hawaiian plantations are said to yield more than 
100 tons of sugar-cane and 12 tons of sugar to the acre. 

526. Uses. — In all countries where the warm seasons 
are long, sugar-cane is used almost exclusively for making 
sugar. In regions where the climate is sufficiently warm to 
grow sugar-cane, but where frosts occur in the fall before 
the cane is fully mature the crop is used for making sirup. 

Molasses is a by-product in the manufacture of sugar 
from sugar-cane. 

Blackstrap, also made from sugar-cane, is a very inferior 
grade of molasses used principally as a food for live-stock. 

INSECT PESTS 

527. The sugar-cane borer {Diatrcea saccharalis) is 
unquestionably the most serious insect enemy of sugar- 
cane with which the Louisiana planter has to deal. It is 
not generally distributed over the coastal pine-belt. The 
sugar-cane borer is the caterpillar of a yellowish moth. 
The eggs are deposited on the foliage and subsequently 
hatch into small caterpillars which feed on the tender 
foliage for a few days, finally entering the stalks through 
the buds or eyes. The remainder of the larval stage is 
spent in the stalks. These larvae tunnel up and down the 
stalks, stunting their growth, weakening them so that they 
are easily blown over by wind, reducing the sugar content, 
and making easy the entrance of fungous diseases. 

Remedial measures are largely preventive. In regions 
where this insect is found all tops and leaves of sugar-cane 
should be burned as soon as sufficiently dry. All shoots 
that start from the stubble of early cut cane should be 
destroyed. Fall planting is recommended and only sound 



SUGAR-CANE — HARVESTING, ENEMIES 427 

seed-canes should be used. Crop rotation is also advisable 
but as sorghum, Johnson-grass, and corn are also attacked, 
the task of starving the insects is often difficult. 

528. The southern grass worm {Laphygma frugiperda) 
often does considerable damage to sugar-cane. It can be 
controlled by spraying the crop with arsenic solution, made 
by mixing three pounds of lead arsenate paste or one pound 
of zinc arsenite powder to fifty gallons of water, or by 
dusting the plants with the latter, using air-slaked lime as 
a filler. 

Another means of destroying these worms is that of 
attaching a light piece of timber to the cultivator so as to 
jar the cane, causing the worms to fall to the ground where 
they are covered with soil by the cultivator. 

FUNGOUS DISEASES 

529. Origin. — It is only within recent years that 
fungous diseases have caused serious injury to the sugar- 
cane of the southern United States. At least one disease, 
the sugar-cane root-rot, has probably been present in the 
sugar-belt of Louisiana for many years, but has caused 
serious injury only in abnormal years. Recently other 
diseases, notably the red-rot, the rind disease and the 
pineapple disease have been found to be more or less 
prevalent in various parts of Louisiana, the red-rot being 
also prevalent in parts of the coastal pine-belt. As these 
are fungous diseases to which sugar-cane is subject in its 
native home, it is quite likely that they have been intro- 
duced on seed-canes from the tropics. The interchange 
of seed among the different planters in this country has 
served to increase the spread of these diseases. 

530. Red-rot of sugar-cane. — This disease is caused 
by a small fungus, Colletotrichum falcatum. It is not 



428 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

easily recognized in a field of growing cane, the disease 
being almost entirely on the inside of the stalk. From ex- 
ternal appearance the cane may seem perfectly normal. 
When the diseased stems are split open, irregularly dis- 
tributed red streaks are noticed in the internal tissue. 
Usually these red streaks or bands are found extending out 
from the nodal region.^ A characteristic of this disease is 
the occurrence of white spots surrounded by the red tissue. 

This disease damages the cane by causing a decrease in 
its sugar content, and also by growing in the stalks that 
are to be used for planting, killing the eyes and thus causing 
a poor stand. 

The treatment of the disease consists in des-troying all 
material in the field known to be diseased, and planting 
seed-canes that are entirely free from the fungus. In fact 
little damage is done where perfectly healthy canes are 
planted each season. 

531. The rind disease. — This disease is caused by a 
small fungus, Melanconium sacchari. The fruiting pus- 
tules of this disease develop "underneath the epidermis 
of the rind tissue" the spores being finally pushed out to 
the surface of the stem. "As the spores are held together 
with a mucilaginous substance, they ooze out in the form 
of long black strings or hairs." ^ 

The disease causes the cane leaves to dry up prema- 
turely. Finally the whole cane may become discolored 
and brown. As the eyes are killed, diseased canes when 
planted give little or no germination. Control measures 
include the use of resistant varieties, the cleaning up of 
fields, and the dipping of the seed-canes in bordeaux mix- 
ture before planting. 

1 La. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 120, p. 8. 

2 La. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 120, p. 16. 



SUGAR-CANE — HARVESTING, ENEMIES 429 

532. The pineapple disease. — This disease is caused 
by a small fungus, Thielaviopsis ethaceticus, which gains 
entrance to the stalks of cane through wounds in the rind. 
The fungus spreads rapidly, decomposing the inside tis- 
sues of the stalks and killing the ej^es. While this disease 
has been observed in this country only in one or two 
parishes in Louisiana, in tropical countries it is perhaps 
the most serious of all sugar-cane diseases, and there is a 
strong likelihood of its developing rapidly in the sugar- 
belt of Louisiana. 

The fungus causing this disease grows in the soil and 
for this reason is quite difficult to control. Where the 
disease is at all prevalent the only remedy is that of treat- 
ing the seed-cane with a fungicide, as bordeaux mixture, 
which prevents the entrance of the fungus into the stalks. 
Planters on whose land this disease has not yet appeared 
should be on guard against it and take every precaution 
to prevent its being introduced into their locality. 

533. The root-rot disease. — This disease is caused 
by a mushroom fungus, Marasmius plicatus. The fungus 
kills the cane roots and often grows in between the lower 
leaf-sheaths. The disease is easily identified by the white 
strands of mycelium on or in the stalks. The eyes may be 
killed before germination or the young plants may be 
killed after germination. 

Control measures consist of careful cultivation, disinfec- 
tion of seed-cane with bordeaux mixture, the use of resist- 
ant varieties, the destruction of infected trash, and resting 
the land from cane. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

PEANUT {Arachis hypogcea) 

The peanut, also known as ground-nut, goober, and 
pindar, forms the basis of an important industry in the 
southern states. It is grown primarily for its seed which 
are used for human consumption after being parched, or 
as a constituent of certain confections. The whole crop 
is rather extensively utilized as a pasture for hogs. The 
vines make an excellent hay. 

534. Nativity. — The native home of the peanut is 
not definitely known. The early investigations by De 
Candolle point to Brazil as the natural habitat of this 
plant, as six or seven other closely allied species have been 
found there. Some botanists have claimed an African 
origin for the peanut. Corbett^ points out that "if Ara- 
chis hypogcea were not of American ancestry it would be 
the only exception in the group, which seems improbable." 

535. Distribution. — - The peanut is grown success- 
fully only in warm climates with long growing seasons. 
It is grown extensively in the warmer portions of India, 
Africa, and South America. The means of its advent into 
the United States is not clear. Circumstantial evidence 
points to the introduction of the peanut into this country 
during its early colonial history as a result of the early 
slave trade, as it is known that peanuts were used as staple 
food for the maintenance of slaves on the voyage across 

1 Peanut — L. C. Corbett, Bail. Cyclo. of Am. Agr., Vol. 2, p. 514. 

430 



PEANUT 431 

the Atlantic. Since their introduction into the United 
States they have been grown principally in Virginia and 
North Carolina, certain parts of Tennessee, Arkansas, 
and Alabama, and in a smaller way in almost all sections 
of the southern states. Virginia and North Carolina 
produce more than half of the commercial crop of the 
United States. The rather general distribution of peanuts 
throughout the Southern States has taken place since 
1866, due partially to the knowledge of the edible quaUties 
of this crop secured by the southern soldiers who fought 
in Virginia and North Carolina. 

536. Description. — Botanically the peanut belongs 
to the family, Papilionacea:>, or pea family. It is an annual 
with a more or less trailing habit of growth. The plants 
grow from one to two feet high and produce thick, angular, 
hairy stems with spreading branches. Each leaf consists 
of the leaf-stem and two pairs of leaflets. No tendrils 
are produced. The small yellow flowers are produced 
more or less clustered in the axils of the leaves.. Two 
kinds of flowers are produced: the male or staminate 
flowers which are rather showy; and the hidden or cleis- 
togamous pistillate flowers. "The stamens are monadel- 
phous, but the alternate ones are short." When fertili- 
zation takes place the male flowers soon wither and fall. 
Immediately the short, thick peduncles that support the 
female flowers begin to elongate and turn downwai'd until 
the sharp-pointed ovaries are thrust into the soil, the re- 
sult being that the development of the pods takes place 
underground entirely. 

The fruit of the peanut is really not a nut, but merely 
a ripened pod with edible seeds, the term "nut" having 
been added on account of the flavor of the seeds which 
is somewhat similar to that of many true nuts. 



432 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

The roots are a yellowish color and are abundantly 
supplied with nodules. 

537. Composition. — All parts of the peanut plant 
are rich in nutritive qualities. The kernel is especially 
rich in oil. The meal or "cake" left after the oil has been 
extracted from the kernels is valuable for its high protein 
content. Peanut hay is almost as high in feeding nutrients 
as clover hay. 

Table 40. Food Constituents in Different Parts of Peanut 

Plant ^ 







In Water-Free Substance 




Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitro- 
gen- 
Free 
Extract 


Fat 


Peanut kernels 


7.9 
10.7 

31.2 

31.9 


2.8 
5.5 

10.7 

12.1 


29.5 
52.5 

12.6 

10.8 


4.3 
5.9 

22.3 

32.3 


14.2 
27.3 

48.3 

39.8 


49.2 
8.8 


Peanut vines, cut be- 
fore blooming 

Peanut vines, cut when 
fruit was ripe 


6.1 
5.0 



538. Varieties. — There are only five or six distinct 
varieties of peanuts grown in the United States. These 
varieties are classified into large-podded and small-podded 
types. They are further classified into bunch and running 
varieties. They may be classified according to the color 
of the skin (testa) on the seed into white and red varieties. 

For the production of roasted peanuts the large-podded 
varieties are preferred. For agricultural purposes and 
for the production of forage the bunch habit is a decided 
advantage as such varieties can be more closely planted. 
The leading varieties of peanuts are briefly described be- 
low: 



^ Hunt, '■ Forage and Fiber Crops in America," p. 235. 



PEANUT 433 

Virginia Runner. — This is a large-podded, strong- 
growing variety, with creei)ing stems and heavy foliage. 
The procumbent stems bear pods throughout their entire 
length. The pods are of light color and usually do not 
adhere well in digging. The usual number of kernels to the 
pod is two. The customary weight to the bushel of this 
and other large-podded varieties is 22 pounds. 

Virginia Bunch (Fig. 73). — This variety differs from 
the Virginia Runner in that the vines are erect and rather 
dwarf, and the pods are borne in a cluster about the base 
of the plant. The pods adhere better to the plant when it 
is dug up than do those of the Virginia Runner. 

North Carolina (Fig. 73). — This variety, sometimes 
called the Wilmington, and in some locaHties known as 
the African, has procumbent stems and in that respect 
resembles the Virginia Runner, but the plant is not so 
large and vigorous and the pods and kernels are smaller. 
The kernels are especially rich in oil. The weight of a 
bushel of North CaroUna peanuts is 28 pounds. 

Tennessee Red (Fig. 73). — This variety bears rather 
long, slender pods, sometimes five or six peas being crowded 
together in one pod. It is an excellent variety for stock 
feeding but the pods do not sell well on the market, 
owing to the red color of the peas. It is therefore recom- 
mended only for stock feeding. 

Spanish (Figs. 72, 73). — Owing to its early maturity 
and excellent yielding qualities, the Spanish peanut has a 
wider adaptation in the southern states than any other 
variety. It is a small-podded, upright growing variety, the 
pods being borne in a cluster about the base of the plant. 
For the production of stock food the Spanish peanut excels 
all other varieties in the United States. It frequently yields 
50 to 75 bushels of nuts and two tons of hay to the acre. 



434 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



The nuts sprout more quickly, if left in the soil after ma- 
turity, than do those of the larger podded varieties. This 
is due to the fact that the hull lies in close contact with the 
peas and moisture is quickly absorbed, Spanish peanuts 
should be dug or used as hog feed soon after ripening. They 
are easily harvested, as the pods are clustered around the 
base of the plant and adhere exceptionally well when the 




Fig. 72. — Spanish type of peanut. 

plant is dug up. A bushel of Spanish peanuts weighs 28 
pounds. 

Dixie Giant is a variety of peanuts so called because of 
the large size of the pods. As it is not a high yielder and 
requires a long growing season it is not a popular variety. 

539. Improvement of varieties. — Peanut plants differ 
greatly as regards their prolificacy just as do the plants of 
corn, wheat, or oats. For this reason it is of paramount 
importance that planting seed be selected from those plants 



PEANUT 



435 




Fig. 73. — Copimercial tj-pes of peanuts: a, Virginia Bunch; b. 
North Carolina; c, Spanish; d, Tennessee Red. 



436 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

that produce a large number of mature pods. In this way 
the plants of low producing power are gradually eliminated 
and larger yields to the acre are obtained. 

CULTURE OF PEANUTS 

540. Soil. — Peanuts having the highest market value 
are produced in light colored soils of a sandy or loamy 
nature. Reddish colored soils having a high content of 
iron are likely to stain the pods, in which case the market 
value of the crop is reduced. The same is true of very 
dark soils. When the crop is grown for agricultural pur- 
poses, the staining of the pods is of little consequence. 
High yields are often produced on clay soils, and when the 
crop is grown for hog pasture, as is often the case, the se- 
lection of the soil for the crop is a less difficult matter. 
Peanuts should never be planted on poorly drained or 
sour soils, or on soils that easily become hard owing to the 
inabihty of the ovary-bearing peduncles or "pegs" to 
enter the soil. 

541. Rotations. — The peanut can be made to fit well 
into a large variety of rotations, but it should invariably 
follow a clean-cultivated crop which has been kept free 
from weeds. Among the crops that may precede peanuts 
in a good rotation are corn, cotton, sweet potatoes, or 
Irish potatoes. The peanut is also admirably adapted to 
combination cropping. The most important companion 
crop is corn which is often planted in alternate rows with 
the peanuts. In the South Atlantic and Gulf states pea- 
nuts are extensively planted between the rows of corn when 
the latter crop receives its last cultivation. When the corn 
is harvested the peanut vines are pastured off by cattle. 
Hogs are then turned in to utilize the remainder of the 
crop. 



PEANUT 437 

The following rotation including peanuts is recom- 
mended by Beattie:' First year, corn or cotton with cow- 
peas planted between the rows at the last cultivation; 
second year, peanuts followed by rye to be used as a 
winter pasture, and plowed under in the early spring; 
third year, cowpeas for hog pasture during the autumn 
months. 

542. Lime for peanuts. — Lime is very essential, 
especially for the production of the large-podded varieties 
of peanuts. Soils that are deficient in lime produce a 
large percentage of "pops" or unfilled pods. As a rule, 
the sandy soils in the southern states are deficient in lime 
and should receive an application of 1,000 to 1,500 pounds 
of lime to the acre every four to six years, if profitable 
yields of peanuts are to be secured. The lime should be 
applied broadcast and harrowed into the soil before the 
crop is planted. When a smaller amount of Hme is added 
it is often applied in the drill and incorporated with the 
soil before the crop is planted, or it may be drilled on top 
of the row behind the planter, where it will be mixed with 
the soil in cultivation. 

Spanish peanuts, although preferring a lime soil, can 
be grown successfully on soils containing less lime than 
would be possible with the large-podded varieties. 

543. Fertilizers. — The plant-food constituents most 
often applied to peanuts are phosphoric acid and potash. 
The fertilizer should not be highly nitrogenous, since the 
peanut is a legume drawing its nitrogen largely from the 
soil air. On exceptionally poor soils, from 30 to 50 pounds 
of nitrate of soda should be added to the acre to promote 
the early growth of the plants before they are able to secure 
their nitrogen from the air. On a soil that is rich in 
1 U. S. Dep't. of Agr., Farmer's Bui. .356, p. 11. 



438 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

nitrogen the peanuts produce vines at the expense of 
nuts. 

A fertilizer for peanuts apphcable to a large percentage 
of the sandy and loamy soils of the South is 250 pounds of 
acid phosphate and 50 pounds of muriate of potash to the 
acre. 

Where the land will already produce sufficient vines for 
a good crop, the North Carohna Department of Agricul- 
ture recommends the use of 400 to 500 pounds to the acre 
of a fertilizer consisting of one-third kainit and two-thirds 
14 per cent acid phosphate. This mixture would contain 
9.3 per cent of available phosphoric acid and 4 per cent of 
potash. The fertilizer is usually applied in the drill either 
before or at the time the crop is planted. 

It is the custom in some sections of the South, partic- 
ularly in Virginia, to distribute calcium sulfate on the 
rows after the plants have made considerable growth. 
This often results in an increased yield of nuts, due to 
the stimulating effect of the calcium sulfate. Unless this 
practice is supplemented by the use of phosphatic and 
potassic fertilizers, it will ultimately result in the im- 
poverishment of the soil, especially as regards the phos- 
phoric acid and potash. 

544. The use of stable manure. — Fresh manure 
should not be used on the land immediately before the 
planting of the peanuts. It results in the abnormal devel- 
opment of the tops and the production of a large percentage 
of unfilled pods. Large numbers of weed seeds are also 
added. The best practice is to apply the manure to the 
crop grown the previous season, or light applications of 
well-rotted manure may be applied to the land in the fall 
previously to planting the peanuts. It should be imme- 
diately plowed under. 



PEANUT 439 

545. Preparing the seed-bed. — All coarse litter, 
such as corn stalks or cotton stalks should be removed 
before the land is plowed. Clay soils on which there is 
considerable vegetable matter are preferably plowed in the 
fall for peanuts. This permits the vegetable matter to 
decompose before the crop is planted. Soils thus plowed 
should be thoroughly disked in the spring before planting. 

Sandy or loamy soils are usually plowed in the late 
winter or early spring. It is best that they be plowed at 
least a month before planting. This permits the seed-bed 
to settle and also hastens the germination of weed seeds 
which can then be easily and cheaply destroyed by means 
of the harrow before planting. 

The depth of plowing will depend somewhat upon the 
character of the soil and the time of plowing. In general, 
clay soils should be plowed deeper than sands. 

546. Planting. — On well-drained soils, peanuts should 
be planted level. The usual practice is to open furrows 
30 to 36 inches apart in which the fertilizers are drilled, 
if these materials are to be used. The fertilizers are best 
distributed by means of a common fertilizer distributor. 
They are often distributed by hand. It is well to have a 
cultivator or some other suitable implement follow the 
fertilizer distributor in order that the fertilizers may be 
better mixed with the soil. 

Soils that are not well drained are usually ridged for 
peanuts. This is done by means of a small turn-plow or 
other suitable implement. The ridge is formed imme- 
diately over the fertilizer and should be partially harrowed 
down or flattened by means of a fine-tooth harrow before 
planting. The peanuts may be planted by hand or by 
means of a Community planter which is not expensive. 

The large-podded varieties should be hulled before 



440 FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 

planting. Small-podded varieties such as the Spanish 
variety are usually planted in the pod. When they are 
planted in the pod, germination may be hastened by 
soaking the peanuts in water for a few hours just before 
planting. Approximately two bushels of unhulled seed, 
or one-half bushel of hulled peanuts, are required to plant 
an acre. The plants should be left from seven to twelve 
inches apart in the row, the distance depending on the 
variety. The large-podded varieties should have the 
greater spacing. Planting should not be done until the 
soil has become thoroughly warm in the spring. Little 
is to be gained by planting peanuts in a cold soil. 

547. Cultivation. — The cultivation of the peanut 
crop may well begin before the plants are up by running 
a weeder or section-harrow diagonally across the rows. 
After the plants are well up, tillage by separate rows begins. 
There is little difference between the cultural methods for 
peanuts and for such crops as corn, peas, and the like. It 
is especially important that such implements be used as 
will keep the soil thoroughly pulverized close to the plants. 
This facilitates the entrance of the fruit stems or "pegs" 
into the soil. Cultivators with small points on the side 
next to the row are quite satisfactory for this purpose. 
Hoeing should be done only when necessary to keep down 
weeds and grass. 

548. Harvesting. — An important use of the peanut 
crop is as a pasture for hogs. When used for this purpose 
the hogs should be allowed to harvest the crop. When 
grown for the market, the crop should be dug before frost. 
The proper stage of maturity for harvesting is indicated by 
the tendency of the pods about the base of the plant to 
shed, and the vines to turn yellow. 

Various methods of harvesting peanuts for the market 



PEANUT 441 

are practiced. In many cases the plants are merely 
plowed from the ground with a one-horse turning plow 
and afterwards separated from the soil by hand. Another, 
and very common, method is to remove the mold-board 
from a turning plow and run the plowshare under the row 
on each side at a sufficient depth not to sever the pods from 
the vines. The side from which the mold-board is removed 
is kept next to the row. The plants are lifted by hand or 
by means of forks, and the dirt is carefully shaken from 




Fig. 74. — Machine potato digger adapted for harvesting peanuts. 

them. They are then thrown in small piles to dry. The 
potato digger may be very satisfactorily used in harvesting 
peanuts (Fig. 74). 

549. Stacking. — As soon as the plants have suffi- 
ciently dried, — a process which requires about three or 
four hours, — they are put in small stacks (Fig. 75) . Poles 
about seven feet long are driven securely into the ground. 
Around the base of each polo a few pieces of short poles are 
placed to keep the peanuts off the grountl. The peanuts 
are stacked with the vines out and the nuts in next to the 
pole. The stacks should be made rather slender and taper- 



442 



FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT 



ing toward the top to shed water. Each stack is usually 
capped with grass to protect the nuts. 

550. Picking. — Peanuts should not be picked from 
the vines until the pods have become dry and the peas 




Fig. 75. — Laboro i 
used. 



•iiMg a stack of peanut \-ini'^, showing method 
Completed stacks in background. 



firm. A better grade of peanuts will be secured if picking 
is deferred until late autumn. The greater part of the 
crop is picked by hand. Machines are in use for picking 
peanuts. They are profitable where the crop is grown 
extensively. Most machines have a tendency to crack a 
certain amount of the pods. 

The picked pods should not be exposed to dampness as 
to do so discolors them and reduces their market value. 



INDEX 



(Numbers refer to pages) 



Acme harrow, 235. 

J5gilops, 305. 

^gilops ovata, 306. 

Alabama argillacea, 137, 

Alabama Experiment Station, 
17, 40, 41, 98, 222, 
228, 244, 254, 270, 
278, 287, 290. 

Alabama, high ranking cotton 
varieties for, 48. 

Alabama, high yielding varie- 
ties of wheat for, 319. 

Alabama, leading varieties of 
corn for, 183. 

Alfalfa, 2. 

Allen, J. B., 52. 

Allium vineale, 334. 

Amber sorghum, 382, 383. 

Andropogon halepensis, 372. 

Andropogon sorghum, 372. 

Anthonomus grandis, 127. 

Arachis hypogsea, 430. 

Arkansas Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 288. 

Arkansas, high ranking cotton 
varieties for, 48. 

Arkansas, high yielding varie- 
ties of wheat for, 319. 

Arkansas, leading varieties of 
corn for, 183. 

Avena barbata, 273. 

Avena fatua, 272, 273. 

Avena sativa, 272. 

Avena sterilis, 272, 273. 



Ball, Carleton R., 373, 377, 381. 
Balls, W., 8, 9, 28. 
Barley, climate, 351. 

composition, 349. 

description, 347. 

enemies, 353. 

fertilizers, 351. 

harvesting, 352. 

nativity, 347. 

rotations, 351. 

soils, 351. 

sowing, 351. 

types, 350. 

value in cotton-belt, 3. 

value in United States, 3. 
"Benders" cotton, 33. 
Bermuda-grass, 2. 
Blissus leucopterus, 268, 337. 
Bromus secalinus, 334. 
Broom-corn, 374, 395. 

culture of, 398. 

harvesting, 399. 
Buckwheat, value in United 

States, 3. 
Bureau of Plant Industry, 28, 
141, 143, 144, 282, 298, 
319. 
Bureau of Soils, United States 
Department of Agri- 
culture, G7, 222. 
Burgess, J. L., 327. 



Calandra oryza, 269. 
Catch-crops, 2. 



443 



444 



INDEX 



Cecidomyia destructor, 336. 
Chalcodermis aeneus, 139. 
Chess or cheat, 334. 
Chinch bugs, 268, 337, 346. 
Classification of field crops, 1 . 
by use, 1. 

for the study of cropping 
systems, 2. 
Clavicepa purpurea, 346. 
Cleveland, J. R., 52. 
CUmate, factors of, 213. 
Club wheat, 315. 
Cockle, 334, 335. 
CoUetotrichum falcatum, 427. 
Colorado Experiment Station, 

151. 
Connecticut Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, 206, 
207. 
Cook, J. R., 52. 
Corbett, L. C, 430. 
Corn, barren plants, 190. 
breeding, 187. 
breeding plot, cultivation of, 

197. 
breeding plot, harvesting, 198. 
breeding plot, selection of, 

196. 
breeding, significance of type 

in, 187. 
broad breeding defined, 204. 
bud-worms, 265. 
characters, transmission of, 

204. 
checking, 240. 
classification, 177. 
climate, influence upon habit 

of growth, 216. 
climatic adaptations, 213. 
close breeding defined, 204. 
composition, breeding for, 200. 
composition, objects of breed- 
ing for, 202. 
composition of, 161. 



Corn (Continued). 

composition, other effects of 
breeding for, 201. 

continuous culture, effect of, 
217. 

covering rubbish, 232. 

cribs, 261. 

cropping-systems for, 217. 

cross-bred seed, method of 
producing, 207. 

crossing varieties, value of, 
207. 

cultivation, importance of, 
245. 
by separate rows, 246. 
depth and frequency of, 

247. 
late cultivation, value of, 
247. 

cultivators, kinds, 247. 

cutting and shocking, 255. 

cutting, hand methods, 256. 

cut-worms, 266. 

description of, 150. 

detasseling, 197. 

dominant quahties in, 206. 

double fertilization, 169. 

drilling, 239. 

ear, 158. 

ear, development of, 171. 

ears, harvesting, 255. 

ears, initial choice of, 195. 

ear-worms, 268. 

enemies, animal, 264. 

fertiHzation, 168. 

fertilizing constituents, rela- 
tive importance of , 225. 

fertilizer formulas for, 227. 

fertilizers for, 223. 

fertilizers, method of apply- 
ing, 226. 

fertilizers, principles underly- 
ing use of, 228. 

fertilizers, when to apply, 226. 



INDEX 



445 



Com (Cordinued). 
flower, 157. 

flowers, pistillate, 158. 
fungous diseases, 270. 
green-manures for, 222. 
growing season for, 215. 
growth, 165. 

factors of, 166. 
harvesting, cost of, 257. 

effect on yield, 253. 

methods of, 252. 

time of, 251. 
harvesting machinery, 258. 
high ears, breeding for, 200. 
husking, 260. 

hybridization, objects of, 203. 
improving, methods of, 192. 
inbreeding defined, 204. 
inbreeding, effects of, 206. 
insect enemies, causes, 265. 
interculture, objects of, 245. 
kernels, 159. 
leaf surface, 163. 
leaf surface, figuring, 163. 
leaves, 156. 

leaves, growth of, 167. 
lime for, 222. 
listing, 240. 

low ears, breeding for, 200. 
low yield in cotton-belt, rea- 
sons for, 238. 
manures for, 221. 
mass selection, 193. 

value of, 193. 
measuring in crib, 263. 
modification of soils for, 212. 
narrow breeding defined, 204. 
nativity, 173. 
origin, biological, 174. 
pedigree selection, 194. 
physiology of, 161. 
plants, degi'ees of relation- 
ship among, 204. 
planting, 238, 



Corn {Continued). 

depth of, 242. 

methods of, 239. 

time of, 241. 
plant-food removed by, 223. 
plowed land, treatment of, 

234. 
plowing, depth of, 232. 
plowing, time of, 231. 
preparation of plowed land 

for, 234. 
rainfall, influence of, 214. 
recessive qualities in, 206. 
reproduction, 168. 
ridging land for, 236. 
roots, adventitious, 153. 
roots, growth of, 166. 
roots, primary, 151. 
roots, structure of, 153. 
roots, temporary, 150. 
root-system, 150. 
rotation, place in, 219. 
rotations suggested for, 220. 
seed-bed, preparation of, 230. 
seed, testing, 238. 
selection, 192. 
shocking, 258. 
shredding, 261. 
shrinkage in storage, 262. 
smut, 271. 
soil adaptations, 211. 
soils and fertilizers, 224. 
soils not adapted to, 212. 
soil type and crop variety, 

213. 
southern varieties, defects in, 

190. 
spacing, 244. 
stalks, methods of destroying, 

230. 
stand, importance of, 243. 
stems, 153. 
stems, growth of, 167. 
stems, structure of, 154. 



446 



INDEX 



Corn (Continued) 
storing, 261. 
sub-soiling for, 233. 
suckering, tendency to, 191. 
sunshine, influence of, 214. 
temperature, influence of, 215. 
tiUers, 156. 

value in cotton-belt, 3. 
value in United States, 3. 
varieties, 182. 

varieties, discussion of, 185. 
water, amount required, 165. 
water requirements, 1G3. 
wide beds for, 237. 
wire-worms, 267. 
yields of forage by different 
methods of harvesting, 
254. 
Cotton, description of, 8. 
acclimatization of, 66. 
acid phosphate for, 86. 
air cavities, 14. 
Amarillo loam and silty clay 

for, 76. 
Appalachian province, cotton 

soils of, 73. 
bales, care of, 121. 
bales, size of, 120. 
baling, 120. 
Big-boll type, 45. 
bolls, 16. 

number of, 17. 
branches, 10. 

fruiting branches, 12. 

vegetative branches, 12. 
breeding, 53. 

need of, 53. 

reasons for, 53. 
broadcast tillage for, 112. 
"buck shot" land for, 76. 
Cahaba fine sandy loam for, 

76. 
characters that determine 
quality, 56, 



Cotton (Continued). 

color and cleanliness of fi- 
ber, 57. 
length of fiber, 56^ 
strength of fiber, 57. 
uniformity of fiber, 56. 

Clarksville soils for, 74. 

climatic adaptations of, 76. 

cluster type, 41. 

Coastal Plain Province, cotton 
soils of, 69. 

commercial fertilizers for, 83. 

commercial grades, classifica- 
tion of, 121. 

composition of, 22. 

composts for, 95. 

compressing, 121. 

Congaree loam for, 76. 

constituents of, 23. 

cotton-seed meal versus 
cotton-seed for, 84. 

Crawford stony clay for, 76. 

crossing, method of, 64. 

cultivation, 110, 113, 114. 

Decatur clay loam for, 74. 

DeKalb soils for, 73. 

diseases of, 141. 

drainage for, 102. 

Durant fine sandy loam for, 
72. 

egg-cells, 28. 

embryo, 29. 

environment, influence of, 62. 

fall plowing for, 102. 

Fayetteville fine sandy loam 
for, 73. 

fertility removed by, 81. 

fertilization, 28. 

fertilizer formulas for, 93. 

fertihzer needs, as judged by 
appearance of plants, 91. 

fertilizer test for, 90. 

fertilizers, nitrogen-supplying 
materials for, 83. 



INDEX 



447 



Cotton (Continued). 

fertilizers, method of apply- 
ing for, 92. 
time of applying for, 92. 
fixation of hybrids, 63. 
flowers, 16. 

forming the ridges for, 107. 
ginning, 118. 
ginning cotton from select 

plants, 59. 
gins, type of, 118. 
Gossypium, 30. 
Gossypium arboreum, 32, 37. 
Gossypimn barbadense, 33, 35. 
Gossypium herbaceum, 31. 
Gossypium hirsutum, 31, 32, 

33. 
Gossypium Kirkii, 33. 
Gossypium obtusifolium, 32, 

36. 
Gossypium peruvianum, 32, 

36. 
Gossypium vitifolium, 36. 
grades, 122. 
grades, values of, 124. 
green-manures for, 96. 
Greenville soil series for, 70. 
growing season, length of, 77. 
guard-cells, functions of, 26. 
Hagerstown loam for, 74. 
harrowing for, 105. 
harvesting, 117. 
heavy seed, advantages of, 108. 
high ranking varieties, 48. 
Houston soils for, 71. 
hybridization of, 62. 
hybridization versus selection, 

65. 
hybridizing, reasons for, 63. 
improvement by selection, 58. 
insect enemies of, 127. 
intermediate varieties, 46. 
Kalmia fine sandy loam for, 
76. 



Cotton (Continued). 
King type, 44. 
late tillage, value of, 115. 
leaves, 12. 

functions of, 14. 
limestone valleys and up- 
lands, soils of, 74. 
lint, 18. 

length and strength of, 19. 
loessial region, cotton soils of, 

74. 
long-limbed type, 46. 
long-staple upland varieties, 

46. 
Louisa soil series for, 73. 
maintenance of fertility for, 

82. 
making second generation se- 
lections, 61. 
Memphis silt loam for, 75. 
methods of improving, 58. 
Miller soils for, 75. 
multiplication plot, 61. 
nature of hybrids, 63. 
Norfolk soils for, 69. 
numbering second generation 

selections, 61. 
nutrition, 23. 

absorption of food, 23. 
carbon, taking up of, 24. 
necessary energy, 25. 
Ocklocknee fine sandy loam 

for, 76. 
Orangeburg soils for, 70. 
organic matter for, 96. 
peduncles, 15. 

phosphatic fertilizers for, 86. 
physiology of, 21. 
picking, 117. 
picking machines, 117. 
planting, methods of, 110. 
planting, time of, 108. 
plants, distance between, 116. 
plowing for, depth of, 104. 



448 



INDEX 



Cotton (Continued). 

pollen-grains, 28. 

potash fertilizers check rust, 89. 

potassic fertilizers for, 88. 

protoplasm of, 21. 

quaUties associated with high 
yield, 55. 

qualities sought for, 54. 

rainfall, amount and distribu- 
tion, 77. 

raw rock phosphate for, 87. 

reproduction, 27. 

reproductive organs, 27. 

ridging versus level prepara- 
tion for, 106. 

Rio Grande type, 43. 

River Flood Plains Province, 
soils of, 75. 

root-hairs, 9. 

roots, function of, 10. 

roots, primary, 8. 

roots, secondary, 9. 
• roots, types of, 8. 

root-system, 8. 

rotations for, 99. 

rows, distance between, 115. 

Ruston fine sandy loam for, 71. 

seed, 18. 

quantity of, 109. 
structure of, 18. 

seed-bed, preparation of, 101. 

selecting best progenies, 60. 

selection of foundation stock, 
58. 

semi-cluster type, 42. 

sharkey clay for, 76. 

skeleton, 21. 

functions of, 21. 

sodium nitrate versus cotton- 
seed meal for, 83. 

soils, classification of, 68. 

soils, need of for nitrogen, 85. 

soils, need of for phosphoric 
acid, 88. 



Cotton (Continued). 

soils, need of for potash, 89. 
soil types for, 67. 
species, 30. 

number of, 31. 

classification of, 31. 

American upland cotton, 
33. 

Sea Island cotton, 35. 

Peruvian cotton, 36. 

Indian cotton, 36. 

Bengal cotton, 37. 
spring plowing for, 104. 
stable manure for, 94. 
staple, 125. 
stem, 11. 
stomata, 26. 
storm resistance, 15. 
structure of, 21. 
subsoiling for, 105. 
sunshine for, 79. 
Susquehanna fine sandy loam 

for, 71. 
temperature for, 79. 
testing transmitting power, 60. 
Tifton sandy loam for, 70. 
tillage by separate rows, 112. 
tillage for, 101. 
tillage, frequency of, 114. 
Trinity clay for, 75. 
value in cotton-belt, 3. 
value in United States, 3. 
valuing, points in, 122. 
varieties, classification of, 39. 

description of, 50. 

influence of soil and climate 
on, 39. 

origin of, 38. 

stability of, 39. 
variety test, 54. 
vascular system, 14. 
Vernon soils for, 76. 
Victoria soils for, 72. 
water, giving off of, 26. 



INDEX 



449 



Cotton {Continued). 

well-defined ideal necessuiy, 
57. 
Cotton anthracnose, cause, 147. 

occurrence of, 146. 

remedies, 147. 

symptoms, 147. 
Cotton-belt states, rank of, 4. 
Cotton boll-worm, 134. 

damage, 135. 

description of, 134. 

food plants, 135. 

life history, 134. 

means of control, 136. 
Cotton leaf-louse, 138. 
Cotton leaf-worm, 137. 

damage, 138. 

life history and habits, 137. 

means of control, 138. 
Cotton red-spider, 139. 
Cotton root-rot, 143. 

cause, 144. 

remedies, 144. 

symptoms, 144. 
Cotton-wilt, 141. 

remedies, 142. 

symptoms, 142. 
Cover crops, 2. 
Cowpea pod-weevil, 139. 
Crimson clover, 2. 
Crop rotation and soil fertility, 

99. 
Cultivated crops, 2. 

Dent corn, 180. 

DeVries, Hugo, 190, 198, 204. 

Diabrotica 12-punctata, 265. 

Diatraea saccharalis, 426. 

Disk harrow, 234. 

Dondlinger, P. T., 305. 

Dry beans, value in United 

States, 3. 
Dry peas, value in United 

States, 3. 



Duggar, J. F., 19, 31, 40, 41, 85, 
90, 118, 228, 237, 276, 
325, 329, 355, 409. 

Durra, 374, 390. 

East, E. M., 207. 
Einkorn, 315. 
ElateridjB, 267. 
Emmer, 315. 
Euchlsena mexicana, 174. 
Ergot, 346. 

Feterita, 393. 

Field crops, definition of, 1. 
importance in the cotton- 
belt, 5. 
value in cotton-belt, 3. 
value in United States, 3. 

Field garHc, 334, 335. 

Flax seed, value in United 
States, 3. 

Flint corn, 179. 

Florida Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 253, 416. 

Florida, high yielding varie- 
ties of wheat for, 319. 

Furman, Farish, 95. 

Gama grass, 174, 175. 

Georgia Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 40, 94, 
100, 244, 292. 

Georgia, high ranking cotton 
varieties for, 49. 

Georgia, high yielding varie- 
ties of W'heat for, 319. 

Georgia, leading varieties of 
corn for, 183. 

Glomerella gossypii, 146. 

Gooseneck sorghum, 382, 383. 

Grain crops, 2. 

Grain moths, 269. 

Grain sorghums, 389. 
belt, 389. 



450 



INDEX 



Grain sorghums (Continued). 

cultivation, 398. 

culture, 397. 

groups, 390. 

harvesting, 398. 
Graminese, 174. 
Grass crops, 2. 
Great Plains region, cotton 

soils of, 76. 
Green, J. R., 22. 
Green-bugs, 301. 
Green-manure crops, 2, 97. 
Green-manures and the nitro- 
gen supply, 98. 
Green-manures and the supply 
of organic matter, 98. 

Hackel, Edward, 373. 
Halligan, J. E., 93, 227. 
Hawkins, W. B., 51. 
Hay and forage, value in United 

States, 3. 
Heliothis obsoleta, 134, 268. 
Hessian fly, 328, 336, 346. 
Heterodera radicicola, 145. 
Hinds, W. E., 134, 270. 
Honey sorghum, 384. 
Hopkins, C. G., 200. 
Hordeae, 306. 
Hordeum nudum, 350. 
Hordeum sativum distichon, 350. 
Hordeum sativum hexastichon, 

350. 
Hordeum spontaneum, 347. 
Horticultural crops, definition 

of, 1. 
Hunt, T. F., 176, 216, 276, 332, 

432. 
Hunter, W. D., 129. 
Hutchinson, W. L., 228. 

Illinois Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 87, 189, 
200, 201, 202, 207, 217, 
218, 221. 



Interculture, objects of, 110. 
Iowa Agricultural Experiment 
Station, 263. 

Jackson, T. W., 50. 
Japanese sugar-cane, 410. 

Kafir, 373, 374, 390. 

Kafir and milo, value in United 
States, 3. 
value in cotton-belt, 3. 

Kansas Agricultural Experiment 
Station, 375. 

Kentucky Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 326. 

Kentucky blue-grass, 2. 

King, T. J., 51. 

King, W. H., 286. 

Kowliang, 374, 395. 

Laphygma frugiperda, 427. 

Layton, R. D., 51. 

Leaming, J. L., 194. 

Louisiana Agricultural Exper- 
iment Station, 40, 219, 
407, 408, 417, 421, 428. 

Louisiana, high ranking cotton 
varieties for, 49. 

Louisiana, high yielding varie- 
ties of wheat for, 320. 

Louisiana, leading varieties of 
corn for, 183. 

Lychnis Githago, 334. 

Mallow family, 30. 
Marasmius plicatus, 429. 
Maryland Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 87. 
Maydese, 174. 
Mebane, A. D., 52. 
Meeker harrow, 235. 
MelanconJum sacchari, 428. 
Mendel, Gregor, 204. 
Mendel's law, 204. 



INDEX 



451 



Mexican cotton boll-weevil, 127. 
damage caused by, 130. 
dissemination of, 129. 
food of, 129. 
hibernation of, 130. 
life history and habits of, 

128. 
means of control, 131. 

destroy cotton stalks, 131. 
destroy hibernating places, 

132. 
make provision for an early 

crop, 133. 
proper spacing of plants, 
133. 
Michigan Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 151, 252. 
Milo, 373, 374, 392. 
Minnesota Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 305. 
Mississippi Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 192, 228, 
253, 419. 
Mississippi, high ranking cotton 

varieties for, 49. 
Mississippi, high yielding vari- 
eties of wheat for, 320. 
Mississippi, leading varieties of 

corn for, 184. 
Montgomery, E. G., 159, 177, 

206, 381, 400. 
Mosaic disease, 148, 
cause, 148. 
occurrence of, 148. 
remedies, 149. 
symptoms, 149. 

Nebraska Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 206. 

Neocosmospora vasinfecta, 141. 

New Jersey Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 206. 

New York Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 151. 



Noctuida;, 266. 

Non-saccharine sorghum, 638. 

North Carolina Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, 191, 
325. 

North Carolina, Coastal Plains 
Station, high ranking 
cotton varieties for, 49. 

North Carolina Department of 
Agriculture, 220, 206, 
268, 327, 438. 

North Carolina, high yielding 
varieties of wheat for, 
320. 

North Carolina, leading varieties 
of corn for, 184. 

North Carolina, Raleigh Station, 
high ranking cotton va- 
rieties, for, 49. 

North Dakota Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, 151. 

Norton, W. A., 50. 

Oats, 272. 

Beardless Red, 281. 

bleached oats, 298. 

Burt oats, 279. 

care of, 293. 

classification, 277. 

classification, botanical, 272. 

climate, 285. 

clipping, 275. 

composition, 275. 

cutting, time of, 296. 

elementary species, isolation 

of, 283. 
fertilizers, 286. 
grades, 298. 
grain, as food, 294. 
grain, description of, 275. 
harvesting, 296. 
hay, 94. 

hot-water treatment, 303. 
hybridization, 283. 



452 



INDEX 



Oats {Continued). 

improvement, by hybridiza- 
tion, 283. 

improvement, need of, 281. 

improvement of varieties, 281. 

insect enemies, 301. 

introduction of new seed, 
281. 

manures, 286. 

marketing, 298. 

origin, 272. 

panicle, 274. 

plant, description of, 273. 

pollination, 275. 

Red Rust-proof, 278. 

rotation for, 288. 

rust, 301. 

seed-bed, preparation of, 289. 

seeding, methods of, 290. 

seeding, open furrow metho<l, 
291. 

seeding, rate of, 292. 

seeding, time of, 298. 

seed-plot, 282. 

selection, mechanical, 282. 

shocking, 296. 

smut, 302. 

soils, 285. 

spikelets, 274. 

stacking, 297. 

storing, 297. 

straw, 294. 

structure and composition, 
273. 

thrashing, 297. 

Turf oats, 280. 

uses of, 294. 

value in cotton-belt, 3. 

value in United States, 3. 

varieties in cotton-belt, 277. 
Ohio Agricultural Experiment 

Station, 87, 221. 
Oklahoma Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station,*328, 329. 



Oklahoma, high ranking cotton 
varieties for, 49. 

Oklahoma, high yielding vari- 
eties of wheat for, 320. 

Orange sorghum, 382. 

Oryza sativa, 354. 

Osmosis, 11. 

Ozonium omnivorum, 143. 

Peanut, 430. 

composition, 432. 

cultivation, 440. 

culture, 436. 

distribution, 430. 

fertilizers, 437. 

harvesting, 440, 

improvement, 434. 

lime for, 437. 

nativity, 430. 

picking, 442. 

planting, 439. 

rotations, 436. 

seed-bed, preparation of, 439. 
soil, 436. 

stable manure for, 438. 

stacking, 441. 

value in cotton-belt, 3. 

value in United States, 3. 

varieties, 432. 
Pennsylvania Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, 87, 
221. 
Phacelotheca diplospora, 388. 
Phacelotheca reiliana, 388. 
Pineapple disease, 429. 
Piper, C. v., 372. 
Piricularia oryza, 371. 
Plodia interpunctella, 269. 
Plumb, C. S., 263. 
Pod corn, 178. 
Polish wheat, 317. 
Pop corn, 178. 

Potatoes, value in United 
States, 3. 



INDEX 



453 



Poulard wheat, 316. 
Puccinia coronata, 301. 
Puccinia graminis, 337. 
Puccinia graminis avena, 301. 
Puccinia rubigo-vera, 337. 
Purdue University, 161. 

Red clover, 2. 

Red rice, 370. 

Red-rot of sugai-cane, 427. 

Rice, cleaning process, 368. 

cleaned rice, 368. 

climatic adaptations, 359. 

composition, 355. 

diseases, 371. 

drainage for, 362. 

enemies, 370. 

fertilizers, . 362. 

growing sections, 361. 

harvesting, 367. 

insects, 371. 

irrigation, 359. 

irrigation practice, 365. 

planting, 364. 

preparation, 368. 

products, classification of, 369. 

relatives, 354. 

rotations, 362. 

seed-bed, preparation of, 363. 

smut, 371. 

soils, 362. 

structure, 355. 

thrashing, 367. 

upland, 358. 

uses, 369. 

value in cotton-belt, 3. 

value in United States, 3. 

varieties, 356. 

weeds, 370. 

yield, 3()7. 
Rice blast, 371. 
Rice bran, 369. 
Rice hulls, 370. 
Rice polish, 369. 



Rice water-weevil, 371. 
Ricks, J. R., 192. 
Riley, James, 194. 
Rind disease, 428. 
"Rivers" cotton, 33. 
Root-knot, 145. 

cause, 145, 

occurrence, 145. 

remedy, 146. 

symptoms, 146. 
Root-rot disease, 429. 
Rowden Brothers, 52. 
Rublee, C. A., 50. 
Rye, climate, 343. 

composition, 342. 

culture, 344. 

description, 341. 

enemies, 346. 

fertilizers, 343. 

handling, 345. 

harvesting, 345. 

nativity, 341. 

origin of, 341. 

rotations, 344. 

rust, 346. 

seed, 344. 

smut, 346. 

soils, 343. 

straw, 345. 

value in cotton-belt, 3. 

value in United States, 3. 

varieties, 343. 

Saccharins sorghums, 381. 
classification, 381. 
climate, 384. 
cultivation, 386. 
enemies, 388. 
fertilizers, 385. 
harvesting, 386. 
land, preparation of, 385. 
planting, time, rate and 

method, 385. 
siruf), manufacturing, 387. 



454 



INDEX 



Saccharine sorghums (Cont'd). 

soils, 385. 

smut, 388. 

yield, 388. 
Saccharum officinarum, 384, 

401. 
Sanderson, E. D., 131. 
Secale cereale, 341. 
Secale montanum, 341. 
Shallu, 374, 393. 
Sherman, Franklin, 265. 
Simpkins, W. A., 51. 
Sitotroga cerealella, 269. 
Smoothing harrow, 235. 
Sodium nitrate, 24. 
Soft corn, 181. 
Soighums, 372. 

branches, 375. 

breeding, 377. 

classification, botanical, 373. 

crossing, 377. 

drought resistance, 376. 

effects on soil, 376. 

fertilization, 377. 

grain. (See Gram Sorghums, 
389.) 

origin, biological, 372. 

origin, geographical, 373. 

poisoning, 380. 

root-system, 374. 

saccharine. (See Saccharine 
Sorghums, 381.) 

tillers, 375. 

value in cotton-belt, 3. 

value in United States, 3. 
Sorgo, 373, 374. 

South CaroUna Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, 9, 
355. 
South Carolina, high ranking 
cotton varieties for, 50. 
South Carolina, high yielding 
varieties of wheat for, 
321. 



South Carolina, leading varie- 
ties of corn for, 184. 
Southern grass worm, 427. 
Special harrows, 235. 
Spelt, 315. 

Spring-tooth harrow, 235. 
Stalks and Utter, disposal of, 

102. 
Sturtevant, E. L., 177, 182. 
Subsurface packers, 236. 
Sugar-beets, value in United 

States, 3. 
Sugar-cane, 401. 

climate, 412. 

composition in sugar-belt and 
pine-belt, 408. 

cultivation, 420. 

cutting, 424. 

diseases, 427. 

fertilizers, 414. 

fertilizers in Louisiana, 415. 

fertilizers in pine-belt, 415. 

handling, 424. 

harvesting, time of, 423. 

improvement, 410. 

inflorescence, 403. 

insect pests, 426. 

juice, amount and distribu- 
tion, 405. 

juice, composition of, 406. 

juice, conditions affecting com- 
position, 406. 

land, preparation of, 417. 

leaves, 403. 

nativity, 401. 

plant, description of, 401. 

planting, method of, 418. 

planting, time of, 418. 

roots, 403. 

rotations, 413. 

seed-cane, method of keeping, 
419. 

soils, 412. 

stem, 404. 



INDEX 



455 



Sugar-cane {Continued). 

stem, structure of, 405. 

stripping, 424. 

tillage practices, 417. 

topping, 424. 

uses, 426. 

value in cotton-belt, 3. 

value in United States, 3. 

varieties, 409. 

j'ields, 425. 
Sugar-can(? borer, 42G. 
Sumac sorghum, 382. 
Sweet corn, 181. 

varieties of, 186. 
Sweet potatoes, value in United 
States, 3. 

Tennessee, high ranking cotton 
varieties for, 50. 

Tennessee, high yielding varie- 
ties of wheat for, 321. 

Tennessee, leading varieties of 
corn for, 184. 

Teosinte, 174. 

Tetranychus gloveri, 139. 

Texas Agricultural Experiment 
Station, 12, 17, 40, 94, 
227, S97. 

Texas, high ranking cotton va- 
rieties for, 50. 

Texas, high yielding varieties of 
wheat for, 321. 

Texas, leading varieties of corn 
for, 184. 

Thielaviopsis ethaceticus, 429. 

Tilletia foeteus, 338, 339. 

Tilletia horrida, 371. 

Timothy, 2. 

Tobacco, value in United States, 
3. 

Toole, W.W., 51. 

Toxoptera graminum, 301. 

Trabut, L., 273. 

Tripsacum dactyloides, 174. 



Triticum monococcum, 315. 
Triticum polonicum, 306, 314, 

317. 
Triticum sativum, 305, 306, 314. 
Triticiun sativum, var. com- 

pactum, 315. 
Triticum sativum, var. dicoc- 

cum, 315. 
Triticum sativum, var. durum, 

316. 
Triticum sativum, var. spelta, 

315. 
Triticum sativum, var. turgi- 

dum, 316. 
Triticum sativum, var. vulgare, 

315. 
Triticum spelta, 306. 

United States Department of 
Agriculture, 22, 55, 109, 
243, 313, 437. 

Ustilago avense, 302. 

Ustilago levis, 302. 

Ustilago tritici, 338. 

Ustilago zea, 271. 

Vii-ginia, leading varieties of 
corn for, 185. 

Watt, Sir George, 18, 28, 31, 36. 
Webber, H. J., 38, 61, 108. 
Weeder, 235. 
Weevils, 269, 337. 
Wheat, antiquity of, 305. 

classification, botanical, 306. 

climate, .323. 

composition, 313. 

culms, 307. 

cultivating, 331. 

cultural methods, 327. 

fertilization, 310. 

fertilizers, 326. 

fungous diseases, 337. 

grain, description of, 310. 

harvesting, 331. 



456 



INDEX 



AVheat (Conlinued). 
improvement, 322. 
insect enemies, 336. 
leaves, 308. 
nativity, 305. 
origin, biological, 305. 
pasturing, 331. 
quality as affected by methods 

of handling, 332. 
reproductive organs, 311. 
roots, 306. 
rotations, 325. 
rust, 337. 

seed-bed, preparation of, 327. 
seeding, date of, 328. 
seeding machinery, 330. 
seeding, methods of, 329. 
seeding, rate of, 329. 
smut, covered, 339. 
smut, loose, 338. 
soils, 324. 
spike, 308. 
spikelets, 309. 
structure of, 306. 
tillering, 307. 
types, 314. 

types, botanical classification, 
314. 



Wheat (Continued). 
value in cotton-belt, 3. 
value in United States, 3. 
varieties, 317. 
varieties for cotton-belt, 

318. 
weeds, 334. 
Whitney, Eli, 119. 
Williams, C. B., 20, 191. 
Williamson, M elver, method of 

corn cultivation, 249. 
Wisconsin Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, 151. 

Zea canina, 173, 177, 178. 

Zea Mays, 150. 

Zea Mays amylacea, 181. 

Zea Mays amylea-saccharata, 

182. 
Zea Mays everata, 178. 
Zea Mays hirta, 182. 
Zea Mays indentata, 180. 
Zea Mays indurata, 179. 
Zea Mays japonica, 182. 
Zea Mays saccharata, 181. 
Zea Mays tunicata, 178. 
Zizania aquatica, 354. 
Zizania miliacea, 354. 



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